Historic and modern approaches for discovery of abandoned wells for methane emissions mitigation in Oil Creek State Park, Pennsylvania.

BACKGROUND: Hundreds of oil wells were drilled along Oil Creek in Pennsylvania in the mid-1800s, birthing the modern oil industry. No longer in operation, many wells are now classified as abandoned, and, due to their age, their locations are either unknown or inaccurately recorded. These historic well sites present environmental, safety, and economic concerns in the form of possible methane leaks and physical hazards. METHODS: Airborne magnetic and LiDAR surveys were conducted in the Pioneer Run watershed in Oil Creek State Park to find abandoned wells in a historically significant but physically challenging location. Wells were drilled in this area prior to modern geolocation and legal documentation. Although a large number of old wells were abandoned summarily without remediation of the site, much of the land area within Oil Creek State Park is now covered in trees and dense underbrush, which can obscure wellheads. The thick vegetation and steep terrain limited the possibility of ground-based surveys to easily find well sites for methane emissions studies. The data from remote sensing surveys were used to corroborate potential well locations from historic maps and photographs. Potential well sites were verified in a ground-based field survey and monitored for methane emissions. RESULTS: Two historic photographs documenting oil activity in the late 1800s were georeferenced using a combination of magnetic and LiDAR data. LiDAR data, which were more useful in georeferencing and in field verification, identified 290 field locations in the Pioneer Run watershed, 86% of which were possible well sites. Sixty-two percent of the ground-verified wells remained unplugged and comprised the majority of leaking wells. The mean methane emissions factor for unplugged wells was 0.027 ± 0.099 kg/day, lower than other Appalachian Basin methane emissions estimates. CONCLUSIONS: LiDAR was used for the first time, in combination with an airborne magnetic survey, to reveal underground oil industry features and inform well identification and remediation efforts in difficult-to-navigate regions. In the oldest oil fields, where well casing has been removed or wood conductor casing was installed, historic photographs provide additional lines of evidence for oil wells where ground disturbances have concealed surface features. Identification of well sites is necessary for mitigation efforts, as unplugged wells emit methane, a potent greenhouse gas.

Historic and Modern Approaches for the Discovery of Abandoned Wells for Methane Emissions Mitigation in Oil Creek State Park, Pennsylvania.

Hundreds of oil wells were drilled along Oil Creek in Pennsylvania in the mid-1800s, birthing the modern oil industry. No longer in operation, many wells are now classified as abandoned, and, due to their age, their locations are either unknown or inaccurately recorded. These historic-well sites present environmental, safety, and economic concerns in the form of possible methane leaks and physical hazards. Airborne magnetic and LiDAR surveys were conducted in the Pioneer Run watershed in Oil Creek State Park to find abandoned wells in a historically significant but physically challenging location. Wells were drilled in this area prior to modern geolocation and legal documentation. Although a large number of old wells were abandoned summarily without remediation of the site, much of the land area within Oil Creek State Park is now covered in trees and dense underbrush, which can obscure wellheads. The thick vegetation and steep terrain limited the possibility of ground-based surveys to easily find well sites for methane emissions studies. The data from remote sensing surveys were used to corroborate potential well locations from historic maps and photographs. Potential well sites were verified in a ground-based field survey and monitored for methane emissions. Two historic photographs documenting oil activity in the late 1800s were georeferenced using a combination of magnetic and LiDAR data. LiDAR data, which were more useful in georeferencing and in field verification, identified 290 field locations in the Pioneer Run watershed, 86% of which were possible well sites. Sixty-two percent of the ground-verified wells remained unplugged and comprised the majority of leaking wells. The mean methane emissions factor for unplugged wells was 0.027 ± 0.099 kg/day, lower than other Appalachian Basin methane emissions estimates. LiDAR was used for the first time, in combination with an airborne magnetic survey, to reveal underground oil industry features and inform well identification and remediation efforts in difficult-to-navigate regions. In the oldest oil fields, where well casing has been removed or wood conductor casing was installed, historic photographs provide additional lines of evidence for oil wells where ground disturbances have concealed surface features. Identification of well sites is necessary for mitigation efforts, as unplugged wells emit methane, a potent greenhouse gas.

Identifying Abandoned Well Sites Using Database Records and Aeromagnetic Surveys.

Oil and natural gas are primary sources of energy in the United States. Improved drilling and extracting techniques have led to a renewed interest in historic oil and gas fields, but limited records of legacy wells make new drilling efforts more difficult, as abandoned wells may provide conduits for liquids and gases to migrate into groundwater reservoirs or the atmosphere. Well finding using aeromagnetic surveys pinpoints the location of steel-cased wells, detecting both active and abandoned wells, including buried casings lacking aboveground markers. Here, we present six aeromagnetic surveys conducted in Pennsylvania and Wyoming as case studies, comparing the magnetic points to locations known in databases. In all study sites, more magnetic points were detected than recorded in databases. Based on differences between theoretical database well counts and the actual number of wells detected in surveys, we estimated the total number of wells in Pennsylvania to be 395 000-466 000 and 181 000-182 000 in Wyoming. Extrapolating to the national level, we estimate the average number of wells in the continental United States is 6.04 ± 19.97 million wells with 1.16 ± 3.84 million of those designated as abandoned wells, within the range of previous abandoned well count estimations. Although aeromagnetic surveys are limited to detecting steel-cased wells and do not differentiate sites based on well status, this study nevertheless demonstrates the utility of aeromagnetic surveys in well finding efforts across the country and shows limitations in database records of oil and natural gas wells.

Spatial and Temporal Characteristics of Historical Oil and Gas Wells in Pennsylvania: Implications for New Shale Gas Resources.

Recent large-scale development of oil and gas from low-permeability unconventional formations (e.g., shales, tight sands, and coal seams) has raised concern about potential environmental impacts. If left improperly sealed, legacy oil and gas wells colocated with that new development represent a potential pathway for unwanted migration of fluids (brine, drilling and stimulation fluids, oil, and gas). Uncertainty in the number, location, and abandonment state of legacy wells hinders environmental assessment of exploration and production activity. The objective of this study is to apply publicly available information on Pennsylvania oil and gas wells to better understand their potential to serve as pathways for unwanted fluid migration. This study presents a synthesis of historical reports and digital well records to provide insights into spatial and temporal trends in oil and gas development. Areas with a higher density of wells abandoned prior to the mid-20th century, when more modern well-sealing requirements took effect in Pennsylvania, and areas where conventional oil and gas production penetrated to or through intervals that may be affected by new Marcellus shale development are identified. This information may help to address questions of environmental risk related to new extraction activities.

Durable pharmacological responses from the peptide ShK-186, a specific Kv1.3 channel inhibitor that suppresses T cell mediators of autoimmune disease.

The Kv1.3 channel is a recognized target for pharmaceutical development to treat autoimmune diseases and organ rejection. ShK-186, a specific peptide inhibitor of Kv1.3, has shown promise in animal models of multiple sclerosis and rheumatoid arthritis. Here, we describe the pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic relationship for ShK-186 in rats and monkeys. The pharmacokinetic profile of ShK-186 was evaluated with a validated high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method to measure the peptide's concentration in plasma. These results were compared with single-photon emission computed tomography/computed tomography data collected with an ¹¹¹In-1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid-conjugate of ShK-186 to assess whole-blood pharmacokinetic parameters as well as the peptide's absorption, distribution, and excretion. Analysis of these data support a model wherein ShK-186 is absorbed slowly from the injection site, resulting in blood concentrations above the Kv1.3 channel-blocking IC50 value for up to 7 days in monkeys. Pharmacodynamic studies on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells showed that brief exposure to ShK-186 resulted in sustained suppression of cytokine responses and may contribute to prolonged drug effects. In delayed-type hypersensitivity, chronic relapsing-remitting experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, and pristane-induced arthritis rat models, a single dose of ShK-186 every 2 to 5 days was as effective as daily administration. ShK-186's slow distribution from the injection site and its long residence time on the Kv1.3 channel contribute to the prolonged therapeutic effect of ShK-186 in animal models of autoimmune disease.

Passive detection of Pb in water using rock phosphate agarose beads.

In this study, passive detectors for Pb were prepared by immobilizing powdered rock phosphate in agarose beads. Rock phosphate has been used to treat Pb-contaminated waters and soil by fixing the metal as an insoluble pyromorphite mineral. Under lab conditions, Pb was rapidly adsorbed from aqueous solution by the beads over time, consistent with the acidic dissolution of rock phosphate, the precipitation of pyromorphite within the pore space of the agarose gel matrix, and surface exchange reactions. Net accumulation of Pb occurred when beads were exposed to simulated periodic releases of Pb over time. Under field conditions, beads in mesh bags were effective at detecting dissolved Pb being transported as surface runoff from a site highly contaminated with Pb. Rates of Pb accumulation in beads under field conditions appeared to be correlated with the frequency of storm events and total rainfall. The rock phosphate agarose bead approach could be an inexpensive way to carry out source-tracking of Pb pollution, to verify the successful remediation of sites with Pb-contaminated soil, and to routinely monitor public water systems for potential Pb contamination.

Identification of phenylisoxazolines as novel and viable antibacterial agents active against Gram-positive pathogens.

A new and promising group of antibacterial agents, collectively known as the oxazolidinones and exemplified by linezolid (PNU-100766, marketed as Zyvox), have recently emerged as important new therapeutic agents for the treatment of infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria. Because of their significance, extensive synthetic investigations into the structure-activity relationships of the oxazolidinones have been conducted at Pharmacia. One facet of this research effort has focused on the identification of bioisosteric replacements for the usual oxazolidinone A-ring. In this paper we describe studies leading to the identification of antibacterial agents incorporating a novel isoxazoline A-ring surrogate. In a gratifying result, the initial isoxazoline analogue prepared was found to exhibit in vitro antibacterial activity approaching that of the corresponding oxazolidinone progenitor. The synthesis and antibacterial activity profile of a preliminary series of isoxazoline analogues incorporating either a C-C or N-C linkage between their B- and C-rings will be presented. Many of the analogues exhibited interesting levels of antibacterial activity. The piperazine derivative 54 displayed especially promising in vitro activity and in vivo efficacy comparable to the activity and efficacy of linezolid.

Assessment of radioactive residues arising from radiolabel instability in a multiple dose tissue distribution study in rats.

Our study objectives were: To quantitatively determine the effect of radiolabel instability on terminal phase radioactive tissue residues in a multiple dose tissue distribution study. To quantitatively compare tissue residue artifacts (non drug-related radioactivity) from two chemically-distinct radiolabel locations. To conduct a definitive multiple dose tissue distribution study using the better of the two radiolabeled compounds. We compared the excretion and tissue distribution in rats of [(14)C]linezolid, radiolabeled in two different locations, after 7 consecutive once daily [(14)C] oral doses. The radiolabels were in the acetamide (two carbon) and oxazolidinone (isolated carbon) functional groups. Terminal phase tissue residue and excretion data were compared to data from rats dosed orally with [(14)C]sodium acetate. Drug-related radioactivity was excreted rapidly over 24 h. After a single dose, the acetamide and oxazolidinone radiolabel sites both gave 3% of dose as exhaled (14)CO(2). After 7 daily [(14)C] oral doses, terminal phase radioactive tissue residues were higher from the acetamide radiolabel, relative to the oxazolidinone radiolabel, and were primarily not drug-related. In the definitive tissue distribution study, low concentrations of drug-related radioactivity in skin and thyroid were observed. We conclude that although small amounts of radiolabel instability do not significantly affect single dose tissue radioactivity C(max) and AUC, artifacts arising from radiolabel instability can prolong the apparent terminal phase half life and complicate study data interpretation. When possible, it is always preferable to use a completely stable radiolabel site.