Glycation of Lys-16 and Arg-5 in amyloid-ß and the presence of Cu2+ play a major role in the oxidative stress mechanism of Alzheimer's disease.

Extensive research has linked the amyloid-beta (Aß) peptide to neurological dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Insoluble Aß plaques in the AD patient brain contain high concentrations of advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) as well as transition metal ions. This research elucidated the roles of Aß, sugars, and Cu2+ in the oxidative stress mechanism of AD at the molecular level. Mass spectral (MS) analysis of the reactions of Aß with two representative sugars, ribose-5-phosphate (R5P) and methylglyoxal (MG), revealed Lys-16 and Arg-5 as the primary glycation sites. Quantitative analysis of superoxide [Formula: see text] production by a cyt c assay showed that Lys-16 generated four times as much [Formula: see text] as Arg-5. Lys-16 and Arg-5 in Aß1-40 are both adjacent to histidine residues, which are suggested to catalyze glycation. Additionally, Lys-16 is close to the central hydrophobic core (Leu-17-Ala-21) and to His-13, both of which are known to lower the pKa of the residue, leading to increased deprotonation of the amine and an enhanced glycation reactivity compared to Arg-5. Gel electrophoresis results indicated that all three components of AD plaques-Aß1-40, sugars, and Cu2+-are necessary for DNA damage. It is concluded that the glycation of Aß1-40 with sugars generates significant amounts of [Formula: see text], owing to the rapid glycation of Lys-16 and Arg-5. In the presence of Cu2+, [Formula: see text] converts to hydroxyl radical (HO·), the source of oxidative stress in AD.

Purine biosynthetic intermediate-containing ribose-phosphate polymers as evolutionary precursors to RNA.

The RNA world hypothesis proposes that RNA once functioned as the principal genetic material and biological catalyst. However, RNA is a complex molecule made up of phosphate, ribose, and nucleobase moieties, and its evolution is unclear. Yakhnin has proposed a period of prebiotic chemical evolution prior to the advent of replication and Darwinian evolution, in which macromolecules containing polyols joined by phosphodiester linkages underwent spontaneous transesterification reactions with selection for stability. Although he proposes that the nucleobases were obtained during this stage from less stable macromolecules, the ultimate source of the nucleobases is not addressed. We propose that the purine nucleobases arose in situ from simpler precursors attached to a ribose-phosphate backbone, and that the weaker and less specific intra- and interstrand interactions between these precursors were the forerunners to the base pairing and base stacking interactions of the modern RNA nucleobases. Further, in line with Granick's hypothesis of biosynthetic pathways recapitulating evolution, we propose that these simpler precursors were the same or similar to intermediates of the modern de novo purine biosynthetic pathway. We propose that successive nucleobase precursors formed progressively stronger interactions that stabilized the ribose-phosphate polymer, and that the increased stability of the parent polymer drove the selection and further chemical evolution of the purine nucleobases. Such interactions may have included hydrogen bonding between ribose hydroxyls, hydrogen bonding between carbonyl oxygens and protonated amine side groups, the intra- and interstrand coordination of metal cations, and the stacking of imidazole rings. Five of the eleven steps of the modern de novo purine biosynthetic pathway have previously been shown to have alternative nonenzymatic syntheses, while a sixth step has also been proposed to occur nonenzymatically, supporting a prebiotic origin for the pathway.

Ribose 5-phosphate glycation reduces cytochrome c respiratory activity and membrane affinity.

Spontaneous glycation of bovine heart cytochrome c (cyt c) by the sugar ribose 5-phosphate (R5P) weakens the ability of the heme protein to transfer electrons in the respiratory pathway and to bind to membranes. Trypsin fragmentation studies suggest the preferential sites of glycation include Lys72 and Lys87/88 of a cationic patch involved in the association of the protein with its respiratory chain partners and with cardiolipin-containing membranes. Reaction of bovine cyt c with R5P (50 mM) for 8 h modified the protein in a manner that weakened its ability to transfer electrons to cytochrome oxidase by 60%. An 18 h treatment with R5P decreased bovine cyt c's binding affinity with cardiolipin-containing liposomes by an estimated 8-fold. A similar weaker binding of glycated cyt c was observed with mitoplasts. The reversal of the effects of R5P on membrane binding by ATP further supports an A-site modification. A significant decrease in the rate of spin state change for ferro-cyt c, thought to be due to cardiolipin insertion disrupting the coordination of Met to heme, was found for the R5P-treated cyt c. This change occurred to a greater extent than what can be explained by the permanent attachment of the protein to the liposome. Turbidity changes resulting from the multilamellar liposome fusion that is readily promoted by cyt c binding were not seen for the R5P-glycated cyt c samples. Collectively, these results demonstrate the negative impact that R5P glycation can have on critical electron transfer and membrane association functions of cyt c.

Ribose sugars generate internal glycation cross-links in horse heart myoglobin.

Glycation of horse heart metmyoglobin with d-ribose 5-phosphate (R5P), d-2-deoxyribose 5-phosphate (dR5P), and d-ribose with inorganic phosphate at 37°C generates an altered protein (Myo-X) with increased SDS-PAGE mobility. The novel protein product has been observed only for reactions with the protein myoglobin and it is not evident with other common sugars reacted over a 1 week period. Myo-X is first observed at 1-2 days at 37°C along with a second form that is consistent in mass with that of myoglobin attached to several sugars. MALDI mass spectrometry and other techniques show no evidence of the cleavage of a peptide from the myoglobin chain. Apomyoglobin in reaction with R5P also exhibited this protein form suggesting its occurrence was not heme-related. While significant amounts of O(2)(-) and H(2)O(2) are generated during the R5P glycation reaction, they do not appear to play roles in the formation of the new form. The modification is likely due to an internal cross-link formed during a glycation reaction involving the N-terminus and an internal amine group; most likely the neighboring Lys133. The study shows the unique nature of these common pentose sugars in spontaneous glycation reactions with proteins.

The multiple Maillard reactions of ribose and deoxyribose sugars and sugar phosphates.

Ribose 5-phosphate (R5P) undergoes the Maillard reaction with amines at significantly higher rates than most other sugars and sugar phosphates. The presence of an intramolecular phosphate group, which catalyzes the early stages of the Maillard reaction, provides the opportunity for the R5P molecule to undergo novel reaction paths creating unique Maillard products. The initial set of reactions leading to an Amadori product (phosphorylated) and to an alpha-dicarbonyl phosphate compound follows a typical Maillard reaction sequence, but an observed phosphate hydrolysis accompanying the reaction adds to the complexity of the products formed. The reaction rate for the loss of R5P is partially dependent on the pK(a) of the amine but also is correlated to the protonation of an early intermediate of the reaction sequence. In the presence of oxygen, a carboxymethyl group conjugated to the amine is a major product of the reaction of R5P with N-acetyllysine while little of this product is generated in the absence of oxygen. Despite lacking a critical hydroxyl group necessary for the Maillard reaction, 2-deoxyribose 5-phosphate (dR5P) still generates an Amadori-like product (with a carbonyl on the C-3 carbon) and undergoes phosphate cleavage. Two highly UV-absorbing products of dR5P were amine derivatives of 5-methylene-2-pyrrolone and 2-formylpyrrole. The reaction of dR5P with certain amines generates a set of products that exhibit an interesting absorbance at 340nm and a high fluorescence.

The catalytic effect of Mg2+ and imidazole on the decomposition of 5-phosphoribosyl-alpha-1-pyrophosphate in aqueous solution.

The rate of decomposition of aqueous solutions of 5-phosphoribosyl-alpha-1-pyrophosphate (PRPP) is greatly enhanced by the presence of certain divalent ions. High levels of Mg(2+) were shown to increase the rate of phosphate removal from PRPP by factors greater than 100-fold. The combined action of Mg(2+) and a nitrogenous compound (imidazole was employed in this study) increases the degradation rate constants by up to 1000-fold. The degradation of PRPP in neutral solutions follows two main paths, a pyrophosphate hydrolysis reaction yielding ribose 5-phosphate and an internal beta-phosphate cleavage yielding 5-phosphoribosyl-1,2 cyclic phosphate. The catalytic effect of Mg(2+) on PRPP degradation appears to suggest a connection between the observed rate enhancements and the dimagnesium form of PRPP. Rate enhancing effects of Mg(2+) are greatest at pH values (i.e. pH>7) which promote strong phosphate-Mg(2+) interaction.

Maillard reaction of ribose 5-phosphate generates superoxide and glycation products for bovine heart cytochrome c reduction.

Ribose 5-phosphate (R5P) is a sugar known to undergo the Maillard reaction (glycation) at a rapid rate. In a reaction with the lysines of bovine heart cytochrome c, R5P generates superoxide (O2-) that subsequently reduces ferri-cytochrome c to ferro-cytochrome c. The rate equation for the observed cytochrome c reduction is first order in respect to cytochrome c and half order in respect to R5P. The addition of amines to the cytochrome c-R5P system greatly increases the O2- generation with rates of approximately 1.0 µMmin(-1) being observed with millimolar levels of R5P and amine at 37°C. Pre-incubation of R5P with the amine prior to cytochrome c addition further enhances the rate of cytochrome c reduction approximately twofold for every 30 min of incubation. While clearly accounting for a portion of the reduction of cytochrome c, O2- is not the sole reductant of the system as the use of superoxide dismutase only partially limits cytochrome c reduction, and the contribution of O2- proportionally decreases with longer amine-R5P incubation times. The remainder of the cytochrome c reduction is attributed to either the Amadori product or a cross-linked Schiff base created when a Maillard reaction-derived dicarbonyl compound(s) reacts with the amine. It is believed that these compounds directly transfer electrons to ferri-cytochrome c and subsequently become stable free-radical cations. ATP, a putative regulator of cytochrome c activity, does not inhibit electron transport from O2- or the cross-linked Schiff base but does prevent R5P from reacting with surface lysines to generate superoxide. The spontaneous reaction between R5P and amines could serve as an alternative system for generating O2- in solution.

Importance of platinum(II)-assisted platinum(IV) substitution for the oxidation of guanosine derivatives by platinum(IV) complexes.

Guanosine derivatives with a nucleophilic group at the 5' position (G-5') are oxidized by the Pt (IV) complex Pt( d, l)(1,2-(NH 2) 2C 6H 10)Cl 4 ([Pt (IV)(dach)Cl 4]). The overall redox reaction is autocatalytic, consisting of the Pt (II)-catalyzed Pt (IV) substitution and two-electron transfer between Pt (IV) and the bound G-5'. In this paper, we extend the study to improve understanding of the redox reaction, particularly the substitution step. The [Pt (II)(NH 3) 2(CBDCA-O,O')] (CBDCA = cyclobutane-1,1-dicarboxylate) complex effectively accelerates the reactions of [Pt (IV)(dach)Cl 4] with 5'-dGMP and with cGMP, indicating that the Pt (II) complex does not need to be a Pt (IV) analogue to accelerate the substitution. Liquid chromatography/mass spectroscopy (LC/MS) analysis showed that the [Pt (IV)(dach)Cl 4]/[Pt (II)(NH 3) 2(CBDCA-O,O')]/cGMP reaction mixture contained two Pt (IV)cGMP adducts, [Pt (IV)(NH 3) 2(cGMP)(Cl)(CBDCA-O,O')] and [Pt (IV)(dach)(cGMP)Cl 3]. The LC/MS studies also indicated that the trans, cis-[Pt (IV)(dach)( (37)Cl) 2( (35)Cl) 2]/[Pt (II)(en)( (35)Cl) 2]/9-EtG mixture contained two Pt (IV)-9-EtG adducts, [Pt (IV)(en)(9-EtG)( (37)Cl)( (35)Cl) 2] and [Pt (IV)(dach)(9-EtG)( (37)Cl)( (35)Cl) 2]. These Pt (IV)G products are predicted by the Basolo-Pearson (BP) Pt (II)-catalyzed Pt (IV)-substitution scheme. The substitution can be envisioned as an oxidative addition reaction of the planar Pt (II) complex where the entering ligand G and the chloro ligand from the axial position of the Pt (IV) complex are added to Pt (II) in the axial positions. From the point of view of reactant Pt (IV), an axial chloro ligand is thought to be substituted by the entering ligand G. The Pt (IV) complexes without halo axial ligands such as trans, cis-[Pt(en)(OH) 2Cl 2], trans, cis-[Pt(en)(OCOCF 3) 2Cl 2], and cis, trans, cis-[Pt(NH 3)(C 6H 11NH 2)(OCOCH 3) 2Cl 2] ([Pt (IV)(a,cha)(OCOCH 3) 2Cl 2], satraplatin) did not react with 5'-dGMP. The bromo complex, [Pt (IV)(en)Br 4], showed a significantly faster substitution rate than the chloro complexes, [Pt (IV)(en)Cl 4] and [Pt (IV)(dach)Cl 4]. The results indicate that the axial halo ligands are essential for substitution and the Pt (IV) complexes with larger axial halo ligands have faster rates. When the Pt (IV) complexes with different carrier ligands were compared, the substitution rates increased in the order [Pt (IV)(dach)Cl 4] < [Pt (IV)(en)Cl 4] < [Pt (IV)(NH 3) 2Cl 4], which is in reverse order to the carrier ligand size. These axial and carrier ligand effects on the substitution rates are consistent with the BP mechanism. Larger axial halo ligands can form a better bridging ligand, which facilitates the electron-transfer process from the Pt (II) to Pt (IV) center. Smaller carrier ligands exert less steric hindrance for the bridge formation.