Pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin following oral and subcutaneous administration in the common ringtail possum (Pseudocheirus peregrinus).

[Correction added on 23 March 2015, after first online publication: Terminal half-life values of enrofloxacin is corrected in the fourth sentence of the abstract] Clinically healthy common ringtail possums (n = 5) received single doses of 10 mg/kg enrofloxacin orally and then 2 weeks later subcutaneously. Serial plasma samples were collected over 24 h for each treatment phase, and enrofloxacin concentrations were determined using a validated HPLC assay. Pharmacokinetic parameters were determined by noncompartmental analysis. Following oral administration, plasma concentrations were of therapeutic relevance (Cmax median 5.45 µg/mL, range 2.98-6.9 µg/mL), with terminal-phase half-life (t½ ) shorter than in other species (median 3.09 h, range 1.79-5.30 h). In contrast, subcutaneous administration of enrofloxacin did not achieve effective plasma concentrations, with plasma concentrations too erratic to fit the noncompartmental model except in one animal. On the basis of the AUC:MIC, enrofloxacin administered at 10 mg/kg orally, but not subcutaneously, is likely to be effective against a range of bacterial species that have been reported in common ringtail possums.

Anaesthesia of hatchling green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) with intramuscular ketamine-medetomidine-tramadol.

OBJECTIVE: To characterise intramuscular ketamine-medetomidine-tramadol anaesthesia in hatchling green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas). STUDY DESIGN: Prospective clinical trial. ANIMALS: Ten hatchling green sea turtles. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Prior to anaesthesia, cardiopulmonary parameters, cloacal temperature, and venous blood gas and biochemistry were obtained from hatchling green sea turtles while they were being gently restrained. Animals were then anaesthetised with ketamine (5 mg kg-1 ), medetomidine (0.05 mg kg-1 ) and tramadol (5 mg kg-1 ) via intramuscular injection. Turtles were checked for the depth of anaesthesia at five-min intervals by recording reflexes (righting, palpebral, pinch, cloacal) and measuring heart rate, respiratory rate and cloacal temperature. After 20 min, a second venous blood sample was obtained for further blood gas and biochemical analysis and the medetomidine was antagonised using atipamezole (5:1 medetomidine, 0.25 mg kg-1 ). RESULTS: All turtles were successfully anaesthetised with a mean time to induction of 3.4 min (±1). In all animals, a loss of reflexes (except for palpebral reflex) and voluntary movement was observed for the entire 20 min. Anaesthesia resulted in marked apnoea for the duration of the procedure. Venous blood gas and biochemistry analysis indicated that a 20 min period of apnoea had no measurable effects on venous blood gas results. All turtles recovered uneventfully after atipamazole antagonisation, with a mean time to first breath 4.5 min (±3.7), and mean recovery time 15.5 min (±15.4). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Intramuscular ketamine-medetomidine-tramadol, antagonised with atipamazole appears to be an effective anaesthetic protocol in hatchling green sea turtles for short procedures with no deleterious effects on venous blood gases or biochemistry.

Metastatic mineralisation caused by vitamin D intoxication in hand-raised short-beaked echidnas (Tachyglossus aculeatus).

CASE REPORT: Two cases of metastatic mineralisation caused by dietary excess of vitamin D are reported in hand-raised short-beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus) puggles at the Australian Wildlife Health Centre. Oversupplementation was attributed to excessive levels of vitamin D in Wombaroo Echidna Milk Replacer fed to the puggles. No information exists regarding the naturally occurring vitamin D levels in echidna milk, but, given the low serum levels that have been observed in free-ranging animals, it is likely to be low. CONCLUSION: The vitamin D concentration in Wombaroo Echidna Milk Replacer has been reduced.

Outbreaks of sarcoptic mange in free-ranging koala populations in Victoria and South Australia: a case series.

OBJECTIVE: To describe outbreaks of sarcoptic mange caused by Sarcoptes scabiei in free-ranging koalas in Victoria (December 2008 to November 2015) and South Australia (October 2011 to September 2014). METHODS: Koalas affected by mange-like lesions were reported by wildlife carers, veterinary practitioners or State Government personnel to the Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences at The University of Melbourne and the School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences at The University of Adelaide. Skin scrapings were taken from live and dead koalas and S. scabiei mites were identified. Tissues from necropsied koalas were examined histologically. RESULTS: Outbreaks of sarcoptic mange were found to occur in koalas from both Victoria (n = 29) and South Australia (n = 29) for the first time. The gross pathological and histopathological changes are described. CONCLUSION: We present the first reported cases of sarcoptic mange outbreaks in free-ranging koalas.

Morbidity and mortality of monotremes admitted to the Australian Wildlife Health Centre, Healesville Sanctuary, Australia, 2000-2014.

OBJECTIVE: The medical records of individual monotremes admitted to the Australian Wildlife Health Centre from 2000 to 2014 were reviewed to determine the causes of morbidity and mortality. RESULTS: During this period, a total of 38 platypus (Ornithorhyncus anatanus) and 273 short-beaked echidnas (Tachyglossus aculeatus) were examined. Trauma was the most significant reason for monotreme admissions, accounting for 73.7% of platypus cases and 90.1% of short-beaked echidna cases. Within the category of trauma, entanglement (28.6%) and unknown trauma (28.6%) were most significant for platypus, while impact with motor vehicle (73.2%) and domestic dog attack (14.2%) were the most significant subcategories for short-beaked echidnas. CONCLUSION: Indirect anthropogenic factors are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality of monotremes in Victoria, Australia.

Plasmodium infection in a Leadbeater's possum (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri).

CASE REPORT: A wild-caught, adult female Leadbeater's possum (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri) died while in captivity after suffering from chronic ill-thrift that progressed to acute respiratory distress. On histopathological examination of tissues, the cause of death was determined to be severe acute pneumonia with pulmonary oedema associated with an intracellular protozoan parasite present within erythrocytes. Transmission electron microscopy was performed on lung tissues and organisms consistent for Plasmodium sp. were identified within numerous erythrocytes. Molecular characterisation of the parasite from DNA extracted from tissue blocks of fixed lung determined the organism to belong to the genus Plasmodium (100% similarity to Plasmodium species when a BLAST analysis was performed); however, speciation of the organism was not possible. CONCLUSION: This is the first report of Plasmodium sp. infection and subsequent disease in a native Australian mammal. The lifecycle of this parasite remains unknown. It is also unknown what effects haemoparasitism may have on the population dynamics of this endangered possum species.

Retrospective analysis of causes of death in mountain pygmy-possums (Burramys parvus) at Healesville Sanctuary, Victoria, Australia.

BACKGROUND: Identification and characterisation of deaths is important for the veterinary management of both wild and captive animals. It is especially important as a tool for monitoring health and disease within populations of endangered species for which little information on morbidity and mortality is known. Investigations into the causes of death and other important necropsy findings were made in a captive population of the critically endangered mountain pygmy-possum (Burramys parvus). METHODS: Necropsy records from January 2000-December 2013 were reviewed for all possums that had lived and died at Healesville Sanctuary (n = 48). RESULTS: The average age of death of possums in this population was 4.7 years. The most common histological change in mountain pygmy-possums was varying degrees of chronic progressive kidney disease (n = 17). Of these cases, eight animals (47%) had histological changes suggesting the kidney disease was the likely cause of death. Other causes of death included neoplasia (n = 5), necrotising pancreatitis (n = 4), pneumonia (n = 2), reproductive disease (n = 2) and trauma (n = 2). No cause of death was able to be identified in 33.3% (n = 16) of cases. Hepatic lipidosis (n = 5), pneumonia (n = 2) and degenerative joint disease (n = 2) were the most common comorbidities found. CONCLUSION: Progressive renal disease, often with secondary metastatic mineralisation, appears to be a significant cause of mortality in captive mountain pygmy-possums and further investigation into its pathophysiology, antemortem diagnosis and treatment is warranted.

Encephalitozoon hellem Infection in a Captive Juvenile Freshwater Crocodile (Crocodylus johnstoni).

Microsporidiosis is reported rarely in reptiles and has never been reported in any species of crocodilian. Microsporidiosis was diagnosed histologically in a juvenile captive freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus johnstoni) that was found suddenly dead in its enclosure. Ultrastructural and molecular testing revealed infection to be due to Encephalitozoon hellem. This is the first report of E. hellem infection in any species of reptile.

Cutaneous and systemic mycoses from infection with Lecanicillium spp. in captive Guthega skinks (Liopholis guthega).

BACKGROUND: Guthega skinks have been listed as critically endangered and are considered particularly vulnerable to extinction because of their isolation and restricted distribution. There is no information on their captive husbandry, or the diseases that affect them. CASE REPORT: Cutaneous and systemic mycosis from infection with Lecanicillium spp. was diagnosed in a captive colony of Guthega skinks (Liopholis guthega). Infection resulted in the death of five lizards. Diagnosis of infection was confirmed using a combination of histopathology, fungal culture and DNA sequencing from all affected animals. An additional four similarly affected individuals were successfully treated with a combination of voriconazole (10 mg/kg PO once daily) and shallow baths of benzalkonium chloride and polyhexamethylene biguanide hydrochloride (F10) (1 : 250, 20 min once daily). This is the first report of Lecanicillium spp. infection in reptiles.

Effect of diet on serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration in the short-beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus).

BACKGROUND: Elevated concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)-D) were diagnosed in captive short-beaked echidnas (Tachyglossus aculeatus) from three different zoological facilities within Australia. RESULTS: The mean serum 25(OH)-D concentration in the wild echidnas was 24.7 nmol/L and was significantly higher in captive echidnas from all three facilities: Facility 1, mean 335.5 nmol/L (P < 0.001); Facility 2, mean 187.2 nmol/L (P = 0.003); Facility 3, mean 194 nmol/L (P = 0.005). Animals did not appear to have clinical manifestations of vitamin D toxicosis. The increased serum 25(OH)-D concentration was attributed to excessive dietary intake and a reduction in the amount of vitamin D(3) in the diet of echidnas from Facility 1 resulted in a marked decrease in the serum 25(OH)-D concentrations (mean 33 nmol/L). The reduction in serum 25(OH)-D concentration was statistically significant (P = 0.002) and the resulting concentrations were similar to those of wild echidnas (P = 0.212). CONCLUSION: It is not known what effect an elevated serum 25(OH)-D concentration has on echidnas.