Enhanced Ca2+ signaling, mild primary aldosteronism, and hypertension in a familial hyperaldosteronism mouse model (Cacna1hM1560V/+ ).

Gain-of-function mutations in the CACNA1H gene (encoding the T-type calcium channel CaV3.2) cause autosomal-dominant familial hyperaldosteronism type IV (FH-IV) and early-onset hypertension in humans. We used CRISPR/Cas9 to generate Cacna1hM1560V/+ knockin mice as a model of the most common FH-IV mutation, along with corresponding knockout mice (Cacna1h-/- ). Adrenal morphology of both Cacna1hM1560V/+ and Cacna1h-/- mice was normal. Cacna1hM1560V/+ mice had elevated aldosterone:renin ratios (a screening parameter for primary aldosteronism). Their adrenal Cyp11b2 (aldosterone synthase) expression was increased and remained elevated on a high-salt diet (relative autonomy, characteristic of primary aldosteronism), but plasma aldosterone was only elevated in male animals. The systolic blood pressure of Cacna1hM1560V/+ mice was 8 mmHg higher than in wild-type littermates and remained elevated on a high-salt diet. Cacna1h-/- mice had elevated renal Ren1 (renin-1) expression but normal adrenal Cyp11b2 levels, suggesting that in the absence of CaV3.2, stimulation of the renin-angiotensin system activates alternative calcium entry pathways to maintain normal aldosterone production. On a cellular level, Cacna1hM1560V/+ adrenal slices showed increased baseline and peak intracellular calcium concentrations in the zona glomerulosa compared to controls, but the frequency of calcium spikes did not rise. We conclude that FH-IV, on a molecular level, is caused by elevated intracellular Ca2+ concentrations as a signal for aldosterone production in adrenal glomerulosa cells. We demonstrate that a germline Cacna1h gain-of-function mutation is sufficient to cause mild primary aldosteronism, whereas loss of CaV3.2 channel function can be compensated for in a chronic setting.

To Protect Fatty Livers from Ischemia Reperfusion Injury: Role of Ischemic Postconditioning.

BACKGROUND: The benefit of ischemic postconditioning (IPostC) might be the throttled inflow following cold ischemia. The current study investigated advantage and mechanisms of IPostC in healthy and fatty rat livers. METHODS: Male SD rats received a high-fat diet to induce fatty livers. Isolated liver perfusion was performed after 24 h ischemia at 4 °C as well as in vivo experiments after 90 min warm ischemia. The so-called follow-up perfusions served to investigate the hypothesis that medium from IPostC experiments is less harmful. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), transaminases, different cytokines, and gene expressions, respectively, were measured. RESULTS: Fatty livers showed histologically mild inflammation and moderate to severe fat storage. IPostC reduced LDH and TXB2 in healthy and fatty livers and increased bile flow. LDH, TNF-α, and IL-6 levels in serum decreased after warm ischemia + IPostC. The gene expressions of Tnf, IL-6, Ccl2, and Ripk3 were downregulated in vivo after IPostC. CONCLUSIONS: IPostC showed protective effects after ischemia in situ and in vivo in healthy and fatty livers. Restricted cyclic inflow was an important mechanism and further suggested involvement of necroptosis. IPostC represents a promising and easy intervention to improve outcomes after transplantation.

Pathogenesis of Familial Hyperaldosteronism Type II: New Concepts Involving Anion Channels.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The application of advanced genetic techniques has recently begun to unravel the genetic basis for familial primary aldosteronism type 2 (FH-II). RECENT FINDINGS: Whole-exome sequencing in a large family with FH-II revealed a shared rare damaging heterozygous variant in CLCN2 (chr.3: g.184075850C>T, p.Arg172Gln) in three severely affected members. The gene encodes a chloride channel, ClC-2. A cohort of 80 unrelated individuals diagnosed with early-onset primary aldosteronism was also examined for CLCN2 mutations finding three further occurrences of p.Arg172Gln mutations and four single cases of other potentially damaging heterozygous mutations for an overall prevalence of 9.9%. A concurrent report also found a different CLCN2 mutation (p.Gly24Asp) in a single severely affected patient from a cohort of 12 with early-onset PA for a prevalence of 8.3%. Cases of primary aldosteronism associated with CLCN2 mutations appear to be bilateral and respond well to medical treatment. In the adrenal, ClC-2 has been demonstrated to localize predominantly to the zona glomerulosa (ZG), and functional analysis suggests that mutations in ClC-2 predispose ZG cells to depolarization, thus leading to calcium influx via activation of voltage-gated calcium channels and increased aldosterone production. Germline CLCN2 mutations appear to account for a substantial proportion of early-onset primary aldosteronism cases, and genetic testing for mutations in this gene should be considered in appropriate cases.

The effects of hepatic steatosis on thromboxane A2 induced portal hypertension.

INTRODUCTION AND AIM: Thromboxane (TX) A2 was identified as an important vasoconstrictor during Zymosan induced portal perfusion pressure (PP) increase. We aimed at investigating whether hepatic steatosis influences the extent of TXA2-induced portal hypertension. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into control and steatosis (induced by the special diet) groups. PP and TXB2 (stable degradation product of TXA2) in the perfusate were measured after in situ liver perfusion with Zymosan (150µg/ml, 40-46min) or U46619 (TXA2 analog, 0.1µM/ml, 40-46min). The number of Kupffer cell (KC) was measured by immunohistochemistry with CD163. RESULTS: Zymosan induced more TXB2 production and a higher PP increase in control group than in steatosis group despite more CD163 positive KCs in fatty livers. PP and TXB2 efflux revealed a strong correlation in control group and a moderate correlation in steatosis group. Contrary to the effect of Zymosan, U46619 induced a much higher PP increase in steatosis group than in control group. CONCLUSION: Severe steatosis increased number of KCs, however, PP increase and TXB2 efflux caused by Zymosan infusion in fatty livers were lower than those in healthy livers. In contrast, TXA2 analog caused higher PP increase in fatty livers. Targeting the more sensitive response to TXA2 in fatty livers might be a potential therapy of severe steatosis.

Infection as a Trigger for Portal Hypertension.

BACKGROUND: Microbial infections are a relevant problem for patients with liver cirrhosis. Different types of bacteria are responsible for different kinds of infections: Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae are frequently observed in spontaneous bacterial peritonitis or urinary tract infections, and Streptococcus pneumoniae and Mycoplasma pneumoniae in pulmonary infections. Mortality is up to 4-fold higher in infected patients with liver cirrhosis than in patients without infections. Key Messages: Infections in patients with liver cirrhosis are due to three major reasons: bacterial translocation, immune deficiency and an increased incidence of systemic infections. Nonparenchymal liver cells like Kupffer cells, sinusoidal endothelial cells and hepatic stellate cells are the first liver cells to come into contact with microbial products when systemic infection or bacterial translocation occurs. Kupffer cell (KC) activation by Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists and endothelial sinusoidal dysfunction have been shown to be important mechanisms increasing portal pressure following intraperitoneal lipopolysaccharide pretreatment in cirrhotic rat livers. Reduced intrahepatic vasodilation and increased intrahepatic vasoconstriction are the relevant pathophysiological pathways. Thromboxane A2 and leukotriene (LT) C4/D4 have been identified as important vasoconstrictors. Accordingly, treatment with montelukast to inhibit the cysteinyl-LT1 receptor reduced portal pressure in cirrhotic rat livers. Clinical studies have demonstrated that activation of KCs, estimated by the amount of soluble CD163 in the blood, correlates with the risk for variceal bleeding. Additionally, intestinal decontamination with rifaximin in patients with alcohol-associated liver cirrhosis reduced the portal pressure and the risk for variceal bleeding. CONCLUSIONS: TLR activation of nonparenchymal liver cells by pathogens results in portal hypertension. This might explain the pathophysiologic correlation between microbial infections and portal hypertension in patients with liver cirrhosis. These findings are the basis for both better risk stratifying and new treatment options, such as specific inhibition of TLR for patients with liver cirrhosis and portal hypertension.

Role of cysteinyl-leukotrienes for portal pressure regulation and liver damage in cholestatic rat livers.

Kupffer cells (KCs) have a major role in liver injury, and cysteinyl-leukotrienes (Cys-LTs) are known to be involved as well. The KC-mediated pathways for the production and secretion of Cys-LT in cholestatic liver injury have not yet been elucidated. Here, we hypothesized that KC activation by Toll-like receptor ligands results in Cys-LT-mediated microcirculatory alterations and liver injury in acute cholestasis. We hypothesized further that this situation is associated with changes in the secretion and production of Cys-LT. One week after bile duct ligation (BDL), livers showed typical histological signs of cholestatic liver injury. Associated microcirculatory disturbances caused increased basal and maximal portal pressure following KC activation. These differences were determined in BDL livers compared with sham-operated livers in vivo (KC activation by LPS 4 mg/kg b.w.) and in isolated perfused organs (KC activation by Zymosan A, 150 µg/ml). Treatment with the 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor MK-886 alone did not alter portal perfusion pressure, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) efflux, or bile duct proliferation in BDL animals. Following KC activation, portal perfusion pressure increased. The degree of cell injury was attenuated by MK-886 (3 µM) treatment as estimated by LDH efflux. In normal rats, a large amount of Cys-LT efflux was found in the bile. Only a minor amount was found in the effluent perfusate. In BDL livers, the KC-mediated Cys-LT efflux into the sinusoidal system increased, although the absolute Cys-LT level was still grossly lower than the biliary excretion in sham-operated livers. In conclusion, our results indicate that treatment with Cys-LT inhibitors might be a relevant target for attenuating cholestatic liver damage.

Isradipine therapy in Cacna1dIle772Met/+ mice ameliorates primary aldosteronism and neurologic abnormalities.

Somatic gain-of-function mutations in the L-type calcium channel CaV1.3 (CACNA1D gene) cause adrenal aldosterone-producing adenomas and micronodules. De novo germline mutations are found in a syndrome of primary aldosteronism, seizures, and neurologic abnormalities (PASNA) as well as in autism spectrum disorder. Using CRISPR/Cas9, we here generated mice with a Cacna1d gain-of-function mutation found in both adenomas and PASNA syndrome (Cacna1dIle772Met/+). These mice show reduced body weight and increased mortality from weaning to approximately 100 days of age. Male mice do not breed, likely due to neuromotor impairment, and the offspring of female mice die perinatally, likely due to lack of maternal care. Mice generated by in vitro fertilization showed elevated intracellular calcium in the aldosterone-producing zona glomerulosa, an elevated aldosterone/renin ratio, and persistently elevated serum aldosterone on a high-salt diet as signs of primary aldosteronism. Anesthesia with ketamine and xylazine induced tonic-clonic seizures. Neurologic abnormalities included hyperlocomotion, impaired performance in the rotarod test, impaired nest building, and slight changes in social behavior. Intracellular calcium in the zona glomerulosa, aldosterone levels, and rotarod performance responded to treatment with the calcium channel blocker isradipine, with implications for the therapy of patients with aldosterone-producing lesions and with PASNA syndrome.

Genetic causes of primary aldosteronism.

Primary aldosteronism is characterized by at least partially autonomous production of the adrenal steroid hormone aldosterone and is the most common cause of secondary hypertension. The most frequent subforms are idiopathic hyperaldosteronism and aldosterone-producing adenoma. Rare causes include unilateral hyperplasia, adrenocortical carcinoma and Mendelian forms (familial hyperaldosteronism). Studies conducted in the last eight years have identified somatic driver mutations in a substantial portion of aldosterone-producing adenomas, including the genes KCNJ5 (encoding inwardly rectifying potassium channel GIRK4), CACNA1D (encoding a subunit of L-type voltage-gated calcium channel CaV1.3), ATP1A1 (encoding a subunit of Na+/K+-ATPase), ATP2B3 (encoding a Ca2+-ATPase), and CTNNB1 (encoding ß-catenin). In addition, aldosterone-producing cells were recently reported to form small clusters (aldosterone-producing cell clusters) beneath the adrenal capsule. Such clusters accumulate with age and appear to be more frequent in individuals with idiopathic hyperaldosteronism. The fact that they are associated with somatic mutations implicated in aldosterone-producing adenomas also suggests a precursor function for adenomas. Rare germline variants of CYP11B2 (encoding aldosterone synthase), CLCN2 (encoding voltage-gated chloride channel ClC-2), KCNJ5, CACNA1H (encoding a subunit of T-type voltage-gated calcium channel CaV3.2), and CACNA1D have been reported in different subtypes of familial hyperaldosteronism. Collectively, these studies suggest that primary aldosteronism is largely due to genetic mutations in single genes, with potential implications for diagnosis and therapy.

Elevated aldosterone and blood pressure in a mouse model of familial hyperaldosteronism with ClC-2 mutation.

Gain-of-function mutations in the chloride channel ClC-2 were recently described as a cause of familial hyperaldosteronism type II (FH-II). Here, we report the generation of a mouse model carrying a missense mutation homologous to the most common FH-II-associated CLCN2 mutation. In these Clcn2R180Q/+ mice, adrenal morphology is normal, but Cyp11b2 expression and plasma aldosterone levels are elevated. Male Clcn2R180Q/+ mice have increased aldosterone:renin ratios as well as elevated blood pressure levels. The counterpart knockout model (Clcn2-/-), in contrast, requires elevated renin levels to maintain normal aldosterone levels. Adrenal slices of Clcn2R180Q/+ mice show increased calcium oscillatory activity. Together, our work provides a knockin mouse model with a mild form of primary aldosteronism, likely due to increased chloride efflux and depolarization. We demonstrate a role of ClC-2 in normal aldosterone production beyond the observed pathophysiology.

Ischemic Postconditioning (IPostC) Protects Fibrotic and Cirrhotic Rat Livers after Warm Ischemia.

Background: Decreased organ function following liver resection is a major clinical issue. The practical method of ischemic postconditioning (IPostC) has been studied in heart diseases, but no data exist regarding fibrotic livers. Aims: We aimed to determine whether IPostC could protect healthy, fibrotic, and cirrhotic livers from ischemia reperfusion injury (IRI). Methods: Fibrosis was induced in male SD rats using bile duct ligation (BDL, 4 weeks), and cirrhosis was induced using thioacetamide (TAA, 18 weeks). Fibrosis and cirrhosis were histologically confirmed using HE and EvG staining. For healthy, fibrotic, and cirrhotic livers, isolated liver perfusion with 90 min of warm ischemia was performed in three groups (each with n=8): control, IPostC 8x20 sec, and IPostC 4x60 sec. additionally, healthy livers were investigated during a follow-up study. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and thromboxane B2 (TXB2) in the perfusate, as well as bile flow (healthy/TAA) and portal perfusion pressure, were measured. Results: LDH and TXB2 were reduced, and bile flow was increased by IPostC, mainly in total and in the late phase of reperfusion. The follow-up study showed that the perfusate derived from a postconditioned group had much less damaging potential than perfusate derived from the nonpostconditioned group. Conclusion: IPostC following warm ischemia protects healthy, fibrotic, and cirrhotic livers against IRI. Reduced efflux of TXB2 is one possible mechanism for this effect of IPostC and increases sinusoidal microcirculation. These findings may help to improve organ function and recovery of patients after liver resection.

CLCN2 chloride channel mutations in familial hyperaldosteronism type II.

Primary aldosteronism, a common cause of severe hypertension 1 , features constitutive production of the adrenal steroid aldosterone. We analyzed a multiplex family with familial hyperaldosteronism type II (FH-II) 2 and 80 additional probands with unsolved early-onset primary aldosteronism. Eight probands had novel heterozygous variants in CLCN2, including two de novo mutations and four independent occurrences of a mutation encoding an identical p.Arg172Gln substitution; all relatives with early-onset primary aldosteronism carried the CLCN2 variant found in the proband. CLCN2 encodes a voltage-gated chloride channel expressed in adrenal glomerulosa that opens at hyperpolarized membrane potentials. Channel opening depolarizes glomerulosa cells and induces expression of aldosterone synthase, the rate-limiting enzyme for aldosterone biosynthesis. Mutant channels show gain of function, with higher open probabilities at the glomerulosa resting potential. These findings for the first time demonstrate a role of anion channels in glomerulosa membrane potential determination, aldosterone production and hypertension. They establish the cause of a substantial fraction of early-onset primary aldosteronism.

Functional relevance of the cannabinoid receptor 2 - heme oxygenase pathway: a novel target for the attenuation of portal hypertension.

AIMS: In liver cirrhosis, inflammation triggers portal hypertension. Kupffer cells (KC) produce vasoconstrictors upon activation by bacterial constituents. Here, we hypothesize that the anti-inflammatory action of the cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2) agonists JWH-133 and GP 1a attenuate portal hypertension. MAIN METHODS: In vivo measurements of portal pressures and non-recirculating liver perfusions were performed in rats 4weeks after bile duct ligation (BDL). Zymosan (150µg/ml, isolated liver perfusion) or LPS (4mg/kgb.w., in vivo) was infused to activate the KC in the absence or presence of JWH-133 (10mg/kgb.w.), GP 1a (2.5mg/kgb.w.) or ZnPP IX (1µM). Isolated KC were treated with Zymosan (0.5mg/ml) in addition to JWH-133 (5µM). The thromboxane (TX) B2 levels in the perfusate and KC media were determined by ELISA. Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and CB2 were analyzed by Western blot or confocal microscopy. KEY FINDINGS: JWH-133 or GP 1a pre-treatment attenuated portal pressures following KC activation in all experimental settings. In parallel, HO-1 expression increased with JWH-133 pre-treatment. However, the inhibition of HO-1 enhanced portal hypertension, indicating the functional role of this novel pathway. In isolated KC, the expression of CB2 and HO-1 increased with Zymosan, LPS and JWH-133 treatment while TXB2 production following KC activation was attenuated by JWH-133 pre-treatment. SIGNIFICANCE: JWH-133 or GP 1a treatment attenuates portal hypertension. HO-1 induction by JWH-133 plays a functional role. Therefore, the administration of JWH-133 or GP 1a represents a promising new treatment option for portal hypertension triggered by microbiological products.

The effects of hepatic steatosis on thromboxane A2 induced portal hypertension / Efectos de la esteatosis hepática en la hipertensión portal inducida por tromboxano A2

Introduction and aim: Thromboxane (TX) A2 was identified as an important vasoconstrictor during Zymosan induced portal perfusion pressure (PP) increase. We aimed at investigating whether hepatic steatosis influences the extent of TXA2-induced portal hypertension. Materials and methods: Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into control and steatosis (induced by the special diet) groups. PP and TXB2 (stable degradation product of TXA2) in the perfusate were measured after in situ liver perfusion with Zymosan (150μg/ml, 40-46min) or U46619 (TXA2 analog, 0.1μM/ml, 40-46min). The number of Kupffer cell (KC) was measured by immunohistochemistry with CD163. Results: Zymosan induced more TXB2 production and a higher PP increase in control group than in steatosis group despite more CD163 positive KCs in fatty livers. PP and TXB2 efflux revealed a strong correlation in control group and a moderate correlation in steatosis group. Contrary to the effect of Zymosan, U46619 induced a much higher PP increase in steatosis group than in control group. Conclusion: Severe steatosis increased number of KCs, however, PP increase and TXB2 efflux caused by Zymosan infusion in fatty livers were lower than those in healthy livers. In contrast, TXA2 analog caused higher PP increase in fatty livers. Targeting the more sensitive response to TXA2 in fatty livers might be a potential therapy of severe steatosis

Introducción y objetivos: Se ha identificado al tromboxano (TX) A2 como importante vasoconstrictor durante el aumento de la presión de perfusión portal (PP) inducida por zymosan. El objetivo ha sido analizar si la esteatosis hepática influye en el grado de hipertensión portal inducida por TXA2. Materiales y métodos: Las ratas Sprague-Dawley(R) se han dividido aleatoriamente en grupos de control y esteatosis (inducida por una dieta especial). Se midieron la PP y el TXB2 (producto de degradación estable de TXA2) en la perfusión después de la perfusión hepática in situ de zymosan (150μg/ml, minuto 40-46) o U46619 (análogo de TXA2, 0,1μM/ml, minuto 40-46). El número de células de Kupffer (CK) se midió mediante inmunohistoquímica con CD163. Resultados: Zymosan provocó más producción de TXB2 y mayor aumento de la PP en el grupo de control que en el grupo de esteatosis a pesar de hallar más CK positivas para CD163 en hígados grasos. El flujo de salida de la PP y el TXB2 reveló una fuerte correlación en el grupo de control y una correlación moderada en el grupo de esteatosis. De manera diferente al efecto de zymosan, U46619 indujo un aumento de la PP mucho mayor en el grupo de esteatosis que en el grupo de control. Conclusión: La esteatosis grave aumentó el número de CK; sin embargo, el aumento de la PP y el flujo de TXB2 provocado por la perfusión de zymosan en hígados grasos fueron menores que en los hígados sanos. En cambio, el análogo de TXA2 provocó un aumento de la PP en hígados grasos. Centrarse en la respuesta más sensible al TXA2 en hígados grasos podría convertirse en un tratamiento potencial de la esteatosis grave