A multifactorial evaluation of objective performance indicators and video analysis in the context of case complexity and clinical outcomes in robotic-assisted cholecystectomy.

BACKGROUND: The increased digitization in robotic surgical procedures today enables surgeons to quantify their movements through data captured directly from the robotic system. These calculations, called objective performance indicators (OPIs), offer unprecedented detail into surgical performance. In this study, we link case- and surgical step-specific OPIs to case complexity, surgical experience and console utilization, and post-operative clinical complications across 87 robotic cholecystectomy (RC) cases. METHODS: Videos of RCs performed by a principal surgeon with and without fellows were segmented into eight surgical steps and linked to patients' clinical data. Data for OPI calculations were extracted from an Intuitive Data Recorder and the da Vinci ® robotic system. RC cases were each assigned a Nassar and Parkland Grading score and categorized as standard or complex. OPIs were compared across complexity groups, console attributions, and post-surgical complication severities to determine objective relationships across variables. RESULTS: Across cases, differences in camera control and head positioning metrics of the principal surgeon were observed when comparing standard and complex cases. Further, OPI differences across the principal surgeon and the fellow(s) were observed in standard cases and include differences in arm swapping, camera control, and clutching behaviors. Monopolar coagulation energy usage differences were also observed. Select surgical step duration differences were observed across complexities and console attributions, and additional surgical task analyses determine the adhesion removal and liver bed hemostasis steps to be the most impactful steps for case complexity and post-surgical complications, respectively. CONCLUSION: This is the first study to establish the association between OPIs, case complexities, and clinical complications in RC. We identified OPI differences in intra-operative behaviors and post-surgical complications dependent on surgeon expertise and case complexity, opening the door for more standardized assessments of teaching cases, surgical behaviors and case complexities.

What influences general surgery residents' prospective entrustment and operative time in robotic inguinal hernia repairs.

INTRODUCTION: Teaching residents robotic-assisted inguinal hernia repair (RIHR) is an increasingly common extension of contemporary surgical training. This study sought to investigate what variables would influence operative time (OT) and resident prospective entrustment in RIHR cases. METHODS: We prospectively collected 68 resident RIHR operative performance evaluations with a validated instrument. Outpatient RIHR cases performed by 11 general surgery residents during 2020-2022 were included. The overall OT of matched cases was extracted from hospital billing; matched procedural step-specific OT was obtained from Intuitive Data Recorder (IDR). Statistical analysis was performed using Pearson correlation and one-way ANOVA. RESULTS: The evaluation instrument reliably assessed residents' RIHR performance (Cronbach's α = 0.93); residents' prospective entrustment strongly correlated with overall guidance provided by attending surgeon (r = 0.86, p < 0.0001) and operative plan and judgment (r = 0.85, p < 0.0001). The overall OT was significantly associated with resident's team management (r = - 0.35, p = 0.011). Procedural step-specific OT was significantly associated with residents' step-specific skill (r = - 0.32, p = 0.014). On average, RIHR cases with the highest level of prospective entrustment (Resident can teach junior) showed the shortest step-specific OT. Entrustment level 3 (Reactive guidance needed) was the turning point of all four RIHR procedural step-specific OT. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that in RIHR, attending guidance, resident operative plan and judgment, and resident technical skill contribute to resident prospective entrustment; resident team management, technical skill, and attending guidance influence operative time, which in turn impacts attendings' determination of resident prospective entrustment. Future studies with a larger sample size are needed to further validate the findings.

Quantification of surgical workflow during robotic proctectomy.

BACKGROUND: Surgical workflow assessments offer insight regarding procedure variability. We utilised an objective method to evaluate workflow during robotic proctectomy (RP). METHODS: We annotated 31 RPs and used Spearman's correlation to measure the correlation of step time and step visit frequency with console time (CT) and total operative time (TOT). RESULTS: Strong correlations were seen with CT and step times for inferior mesenteric vein dissection and ligation (ρ = 0.60, ρ = 0.60), lateral-to-medial splenic flexure mobilisation (SFM) (ρ = 0.63), left rectal dissection (ρ = 0.64) and mesorectal division (ρ = 0.71). CT correlated strongly with medial-to-lateral (ρ = 0.75) and supracolic SFM visit frequency (ρ = 0.65). TOT correlated strongly with initial exposure time (ρ = 0.60), and medial-to-lateral (ρ = 0.67) and supracolic SFM visit frequency (ρ = 0.65). CONCLUSION: This study correlates surgical steps with CT and TOT through standardised annotation, providing an objective approach to quantify workflow.

Quantification of Surgical Workflow during Robotic Proctectomy.

Aim: Assessments of surgical workflow offer insight regarding procedure variability, case complexity and surgeon proficiency. We utilize an objective method to evaluate step-by-step workflow and step transitions during robotic proctectomy (RP). Methods: We annotated 31 RPs using a procedure-specific annotation card. Using Spearman's correlation, we measured strength of association of step time and step visit frequency with console time (CT) and total operative time (TOT). Results: Across 31 RPs, a mean (± standard deviation) of 49.0 (± 20.3) steps occurred per procedure. Mean CT and TOT were 213 (± 90) and 283 (± 108) minutes. Posterior mesorectal dissection required most visits (8.7 ± 5.0), while anastomosis required most time (18.0 [± 8.5] minutes). Inferior mesenteric vein (IMV) ligation required least visits (1.0 ± 0.0) and lowest duration (0.9 [± 0.5] minutes). Strong correlations were seen with CT and step times for IMV dissection and ligation (ρ = 0.60 for both), lateral-to-medial splenic flexure mobilization (SFM) (ρ = 0.63), left rectal dissection (ρ = 0.64) and mesorectal division (ρ = 0.71). CT correlated strongly with medial-to-lateral and supracolic SFM visit frequency (ρ = 0.75 and ρ = 0.65). There were strong correlations with TOT and initial exposure time (ρ = 0.60), as well as visit frequency for medial-to-lateral (ρ = 0.67) and supracolic SFM (ρ = 0.65). Descending colon mobilization was nodal, rectal mobilization convergent and rectal transection divergent. Conclusion: This study correlates individual surgical steps with CT and TOT through standardized annotation. It provides an objective approach to quantify workflow.

Comparison of Global Evaluative Assessment of Robotic Surgery with objective performance indicators for the assessment of skill during robotic-assisted thoracic surgery.

BACKGROUND: The Global Evaluative Assessment of Robotic Skills is a popular but ultimately subjective assessment tool in robotic-assisted surgery. An alternative approach is to record system or console events or calculate instrument kinematics to derive objective performance indicators. The aim of this study was to compare these 2 approaches and correlate the Global Evaluative Assessment of Robotic Skills with different types of objective performance indicators during robotic-assisted lobectomy. METHODS: Video, system event, and kinematic data were recorded from the robotic surgical system during left upper lobectomy on a standardized perfused and pulsatile ex vivo porcine heart-lung model. Videos were segmented into steps, and the superior vein dissection was graded independently by 2 blinded expert surgeons with Global Evaluative Assessment of Robotic Skills. Objective performance indicators representing categories for energy use, event data, movement, smoothness, time, and wrist articulation were calculated for the same task and compared to Global Evaluative Assessment of Robotic Skills scores. RESULTS: Video and data from 51 cases were analyzed (44 fellows, 7 attendings). Global Evaluative Assessment of Robotic Skills scores were significantly higher for attendings (P < .05), but there was a significant difference in raters' scores of 31.4% (defined as >20% difference in total score). The interclass correlation was 0.44 for 1 rater and 0.61 for 2 raters. Objective performance indicators correlated with Global Evaluative Assessment of Robotic Skills to varying degrees. The most highly correlated Global Evaluative Assessment of Robotic Skills domain was efficiency. Instrument movement and smoothness were highly correlated among objective performance indicator categories. Of individual objective performance indicators, right-hand median jerk, an objective performance indicator of change of acceleration, had the highest correlation coefficient (0.55). CONCLUSION: There was a relatively poor overall correlation between the Global Evaluative Assessment of Robotic Skills and objective performance indicators. However, both appear strongly correlated for certain metrics such as efficiency and smoothness. Objective performance indicators may be a potentially more quantitative and granular approach to assessing skill, given that they can be calculated mathematically and automatically without subjective interpretation.

Ratio of Economy of Motion: A New Objective Performance Indicator to Assign Consoles During Dual-Console Robotic Proctectomy.

BACKGROUND: Our group investigates objective performance indicators (OPIs) to analyze robotic colorectal surgery. Analyses of OPI data are difficult in dual-console procedures (DCPs) as there is currently no reliable, efficient, or scalable technique to assign console-specific OPIs during a DCP. We developed and validated a novel metric to assign tasks to appropriate surgeons during DCPs. METHODS: A colorectal surgeon and fellow reviewed 21 unedited, dual-console proctectomy videos with no information to identify the operating surgeons. The reviewers watched a small number of random tasks and assigned "attending" or "trainee" to each task. Based on this sampling, the remainder of task assignments for each procedure was extrapolated. In parallel, we applied our newly developed OPI, ratio of economy of motion (rEOM), to assign consoles. Results from the 2 methods were compared. RESULTS: A total of 1811 individual surgical tasks were recorded during 21 proctectomy videos. A median of 6.5 random tasks (137 total) were reviewed during each video, and the remainder of task assignments were extrapolated based on the 7.6% of tasks audited. The task assignment agreement was 91.2% for video review vs rEOM, with rEOM providing ground truth. It took 2.5 hours to manually review video and assign tasks. Ratio of economy of motion task assignment was immediately available based on OPI recordings and automated calculation. DISCUSSION: We developed and validated rEOM as an accurate, efficient, and scalable OPI to assign individual surgical tasks to appropriate surgeons during DCPs. This new resource will be useful to everyone involved in OPI research across all surgical specialties.

The role of the C2A domain of synaptotagmin 1 in asynchronous neurotransmitter release.

Following nerve stimulation, there are two distinct phases of Ca2+-dependent neurotransmitter release: a fast, synchronous release phase, and a prolonged, asynchronous release phase. Each of these phases is tightly regulated and mediated by distinct mechanisms. Synaptotagmin 1 is the major Ca2+ sensor that triggers fast, synchronous neurotransmitter release upon Ca2+ binding by its C2A and C2B domains. It has also been implicated in the inhibition of asynchronous neurotransmitter release, as blocking Ca2+ binding by the C2A domain of synaptotagmin 1 results in increased asynchronous release. However, the mutation used to block Ca2+ binding in the previous experiments (aspartate to asparagine mutations, sytD-N) had the unintended side effect of mimicking Ca2+ binding, raising the possibility that the increase in asynchronous release was directly caused by ostensibly constitutive Ca2+ binding. Thus, rather than modulating an asynchronous sensor, sytD-N may be mimicking one. To directly test the C2A inhibition hypothesis, we utilized an alternate C2A mutation that we designed to block Ca2+ binding without mimicking it (an aspartate to glutamate mutation, sytD-E). Analysis of both the original sytD-N mutation and our alternate sytD-E mutation at the Drosophila neuromuscular junction showed differential effects on asynchronous release, as well as on synchronous release and the frequency of spontaneous release. Importantly, we found that asynchronous release is not increased in the sytD-E mutant. Thus, our work provides new mechanistic insight into synaptotagmin 1 function during Ca2+-evoked synaptic transmission and demonstrates that Ca2+ binding by the C2A domain of synaptotagmin 1 does not inhibit asynchronous neurotransmitter release in vivo.

Drosophila studies support a role for a presynaptic synaptotagmin mutation in a human congenital myasthenic syndrome.

During chemical transmission, the function of synaptic proteins must be coordinated to efficiently release neurotransmitter. Synaptotagmin 2, the Ca2+ sensor for fast, synchronized neurotransmitter release at the human neuromuscular junction, has recently been implicated in a dominantly inherited congenital myasthenic syndrome associated with a non-progressive motor neuropathy. In one family, a proline residue within the C2B Ca2+-binding pocket of synaptotagmin is replaced by a leucine. The functional significance of this residue has not been investigated previously. Here we show that in silico modeling predicts disruption of the C2B Ca2+-binding pocket, and we examine the in vivo effects of the homologous mutation in Drosophila. When expressed in the absence of native synaptotagmin, this mutation is lethal, demonstrating for the first time that this residue plays a critical role in synaptotagmin function. To achieve expression similar to human patients, the mutation is expressed in flies carrying one copy of the wild type synaptotagmin gene. We now show that Drosophila carrying this mutation developed neurological and behavioral manifestations similar to those of human patients and provide insight into the mechanisms underlying these deficits. Our Drosophila studies support a role for this synaptotagmin point mutation in disease etiology.

Combined diazepam and HDAC inhibitor treatment protects against seizures and neuronal damage caused by soman exposure.

The occurrence of status epilepticus (SE) is considered the main cause of brain lesions and morphological alterations, such as hippocampal neuron loss, that result in chronic epilepsy. Previous work demonstrated the convulsive and widespread neuropathological effects of soman, an organophosphorus compound that causes SE and severe recurrent seizures as a result of exposure. Seizures begin rapidly after exposure, can continue for hours, and contribute to prolonged physical incapacitation of the victim. This study attempts to identify anticonvulsive and neuroprotective drugs against soman exposure. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to 1.0 LD(50) soman. EEGraphical and neuropathological (Fluoro-Jade B staining) effects were analyzed at 72 h post-exposure to soman and subsequent treatments with diazepam (DZP) alone or in combination with histone deacetylase inhibitors, suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA) or valproic acid (VPA). The extent of brain damage was dependent on the length of SE and not on the number of recurrent seizures. DZP treatment alone decreased SE time and damage in hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus and cortex, but not in piriform nuclei. The combination of DZP and VPA 100 mg/kg showed more anticonvulsive effects, decreased SE time, and afforded more neuroprotection in the hippocampus, mainly the ventral portion. The combination DZP and SAHA 25 mg/kg was more neuroprotective, but not more anticonvulsant than DZP alone. The DZP combination with VPA HDAC inhibitor proved to be a good treatment for SE and neuronal damage caused by soman exposure.