Immunolocalization of enamel matrix protein-like proteins in the tooth enameloid of spotted gar, Lepisosteus oculatus, an actinopterygian bony fish.

Enameloid is a well-mineralized tissue covering the tooth surface in fish and it corresponds to the outer-most layer of dentin. It was reported that both dental epithelial cells and odontoblasts are involved in the formation of enameloid. Nevertheless, the localization and timing of secretion of ectodermal enamel matrix proteins in enameloid are unclear. In the present study, the enameloid matrix during the stages of enameloid formation in spotted gar, Lepisosteus oculatus, an actinopterygian, was examined mainly by transmission electron microscopy-based immunohistochemistry using an anti-mammalian amelogenin antibody and antiserum. Positive immunoreactivity with the antibody and antiserum was found in enameloid from the surface to the dentin-enameloid junction just before the formation of crystallites. This immunoreactivity disappeared rapidly before the full appearance of crystallites in the enameloid during the stage of mineralization. Immunolabelling was usually found along the collagen fibrils but was not seen on the electron-dense fibrous structures, which were probably derived from matrix vesicles in the previous stage. In inner dental epithelial cells, the granules in the distal cytoplasm often showed positive immunoreactivity, suggesting that the enamel matrix protein-like proteins originated from inner dental epithelial cells. Enamel matrix protein-like proteins in the enameloid matrix might be common to the enamel matrix protein-like proteins previously reported in the collar enamel of teeth and ganoine of ganoid scales, because they exhibited marked immunoreactivity with the same anti-mammalian amelogenin antibodies. It is likely that enamel matrix protein-like proteins are involved in the formation of crystallites along collagen fibrils in enameloid.

Immunohistochemical and Western Blotting Analyses of Ganoine in the Ganoid Scales of Lepisosteus oculatus: an Actinopterygian Fish.

In order to compare its characteristics with those of jaw tooth collar enamel, normally developing and experimentally regenerating ganoine from ganoid scales of Lepisosteus oculatus (spotted gar), an actinopterygian fish species, was examined by Western blotting and immunohistochemistry. Amelogenin, a major enamel matrix protein (EMP), is widely found from sarcopterygian fish to mammals. Therefore, we used antimammalian amelogenin antibodies and antisera: an antibody against bovine amelogenin; antiserum against porcine amelogenin; and region-specific antibodies or antiserum against the C-terminus, middle region, or N-terminus of porcine amelogenin in this study. Positive immunoreactivity with the antibody against bovine amelogenin, antiserum against porcine amelogenin, and the middle and C-terminal region-specific antibodies was detected in both normally developing and regenerating ganoine matrix, as well as in granules found within inner ganoine epithelial cells. These immunohistochemical analyses indicated that the Lepisosteus ganoine matrix contains EMP-like proteins with epitopes similar to mammalian amelogenins. In Western blotting analyses of regenerating ganoid scales with the antibovine amelogenin antibody, two protein bands with molecular weights of approximately 78 and 65 kDa were detected, which were similar to those found in Lepisosteus tooth enamel. Our study suggests that in Lepisosteus, EMP-like proteins in the ganoine matrix corresponded to those in tooth enamel. However, it was revealed that the 78 and 65 kDa EMP-like proteins were different from 27 kDa bovine amelogenin.

TGF-ß in dentin matrix extract induces osteoclastogenesis in vitro.

Previously, we have demonstrated that the extracellular matrix from dentin affects osteoclastic activity in co-culture between osteoclast and osteoblast-rich fraction from mouse marrow cells. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the mechanisms of dentin matrix extract-induced osteoclastogenesis in mouse bone marrow macrophages (BMMs). Dentin proteins were extracted from bovine incisor root dentin using 0.6 M HCl. BMMs were cultured in α-MEM containing macrophage colony-stimulating factor/receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand in the presence or absence of dentin matrix extract. Tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP)-positive cell number, total TRAP activity, and the mRNA levels of osteoclast-related genes, assayed by real-time RT-PCR, were determined as markers of osteoclastogenesis. A neutralizing antibody against transforming growth factor-ß1 (TGF-ß1), SB431542, a TGF-ß receptor inhibitor, and ELISA were used to determine the role of TGF-ß1. We observed increases in TRAP-positive cell number, TRAP activity, and the mRNA levels of osteoclast-related genes of BMMs cultured with dentin extract. The use of a neutralizing antibody against TGF-ß1 or SB431542 inhibited the inductive effect of dentin extract, suggesting TGF-ß1 involvement. The addition of exogenous TGF-ß1, but not bone morphogenic protein-2, also increased osteoclastogenesis, corresponding to the ELISA determination of TGF-ß1 in the dentin extract. In conclusion, our results indicate that proteins from dentin matrix have an inductive effect in osteoclastogenesis, which is mediated, in part, by TGF-ß1.

Immunohistochemical and Western blot analyses of collar enamel in the jaw teeth of gars, Lepisosteus oculatus, an actinopterygian fish.

Although most fish have no enamel layer in their teeth, those belonging to Lepisosteus (gars), an extant actinopterygian fish genus, do and so can be used to study amelogenesis. In order to examine the collar enamel matrix in gar teeth, we subjected gar teeth to light and electron microscopic immunohistochemical examinations using an antibody against bovine amelogenin (27 kDa) and antiserum against porcine amelogenin (25 kDa), as well as region-specific antibodies and antiserum against the C-terminus and middle region, and N-terminus of porcine amelogenin, respectively. The enamel matrix exhibited intense immunoreactivity to the anti-bovine amelogenin antibody and the anti-porcine amelogenin antiserum in addition to the C-terminal and middle region-specific antibodies, but not to the N-terminal-specific antiserum. These results suggest that the collar enamel matrix of gar teeth contains amelogenin-like proteins and that these proteins possess domains that closely resemble the C-terminal and middle regions of porcine amelogenin. Western blot analyses of the tooth germs of Lepisosteus were also performed. As a result, protein bands with molecular weights of 78 kDa and 65 kDa were clearly stained by the anti-bovine amelogenin antibody as well as the antiserum against porcine amelogenin and the middle-region-specific antibody. It is likely that the amelogenin-like proteins present in Lepisosteus do not correspond to the amelogenins found in mammals, although they do possess domains that are shared with mammalian amelogenins.

The tumor necrosis factor type 2 receptor plays a protective role in tumor necrosis factor-α-induced bone resorption lacunae on mouse calvariae.

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α exerts its biological function via TNF type 1 and type 2 receptors (TNFR1 and TNFR2). We have previously reported that bone resorption induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in TNFR2-deficient mice is accelerated compared to that in wild-type (WT) mice. Although these results suggested that TNFR2 might have a protective role in bone resorption, we could not exclude the possibility that TNFR2 has no role in bone resorption. To clarify the role of TNFR2, we developed a TNF-α-induced bone resorption model using cholesterol-bearing pullulan nanogel as a TNF-α carrier to minimize the influence of inflammatory cytokines other than TNF-α. Injections of human TNF-α (hTNF), an agonist of mouse TNFR1, stimulated bone resorption lacunae on the calvariae in WT mice, but mouse TNF-α (mTNF), an agonist of both mouse TNFR1 and TNFR2, could not. To eliminate the possibility that the TNFR1 agonistic effects of hTNF were stronger than those of mTNF, we used the same model in TNFR2-deficient mice. Injection of mTNF resulted in clear bone resorption lacunae to the same extent observed after using hTNF in the TNFR2-deficient mice. Histomorphometric analysis of osteoclast number supported the observed changes in bone resorption lacunae. These data suggest that TNFR2 has a protective role in TNF-α-induced bone resorption.

Small GTPase Ras and Rho expression in rat osteoblasts during spaceflight.

Rat osteoblasts were cultured for 4 and 5 days aboard a space shuttle and solubilized after a 24-h treatment with 1alpha,25 dihydroxyvitamin D(3). The quantitative RT-PCR determined the mRNA levels of signaling molecules upstream and downstream Ras. The small GTPase is activated by guanine nucleotide exchange protein (GEF) and deactivated by GTPase-activating protein (GAP). When external stimuli are transduced into intracellular signals, various pathways are recruited: focal adhesion kinase (FAK) is associated with integrin-beta, and directs tyrosine phosphorylation of downstream substrates, including phospholipase C-gamma (PLC-gamma) and son of sevenless (SOS, a Ras GEF). The mRNA levels of FAK and PLC-gamma1 and -gamma2 in the flight cultures were increased 150% and 250% of the ground controls. The SOS mRNA levels in the flight cultures were increased 520% and 320% of the ground controls. Signals via G protein-coupled receptors are transmitted through PLC-beta and Ras GRF (another Ras GEF). Activated Ras then stimulates Raf, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades. The mRNA levels of Raf, extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase of MAPK family (ERK-1 and -2), and PLC-beta were increased during spaceflight. Rho GAP expression in the flight cultures was increased twofold of the ground controls. Since Rho GAP deactivates Rho, microgravity may suppress Rho signals, regulating actin filament rearrangement. Microgravity signals may involve two pathways (G protein-coupled receptor-mediated pathway and tyrosine phosphorylation-mediated pathway) that activate Ras, Raf, and MAPK cascades in rat osteoblasts.

Anteroposterior Patterning of Gene Expression in the Human Infant Sclera: Chondrogenic Potential and Wnt Signaling.

Purpose/Aim: We sought to identify the anteroposterior spatial gene expression hierarchy in the human sclera to develop a hypothesis for axial elongation and deformity of the eyeball. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We analyzed the global gene expression of human scleral cells derived from distinct parts of the human infant sclera obtained from surgically enucleated eyes with retinoblastoma, using Affymetrix GeneChip oligonucleotide arrays, and compared, in particular, gene expression levels between the anterior and posterior parts of the sclera. The ages of three donors were 10M, 4M, and 1Y9M. RESULTS: K-means clustering analysis of gene expression revealed that expression levels of cartilage-associated genes such as COLXIA and ACAN increased from the anterior to the posterior part of the sclera. Microarray analyses and RT-PCR data showed that the expression levels of MGP, COLXIA, BMP4, and RARB were significantly higher in the posterior than in the anterior sclera of two independent infant eyes. Conversely, expression levels of WNT2, DKK2, GREM1, and HOXB2 were significantly higher in the anterior sclera. Among several Wnt-family genes examined, WNT2B was found to be expressed at a significantly higher level in the posterior sclera, and the reverse order was observed for WNT2. The results of luciferase reporter assays suggested that a GSK-3ß inhibitor stimulated Wnt/ß-catenin signaling particularly strongly in the posterior sclera. The expression pattern of RARB, a myopia-related gene, was similar in three independent eyes. CONCLUSIONS: Chondrogenic potential was higher and Wnt/ß-catenin signaling was more potently activated by a GSK-3ß inhibitor in the posterior than in the anterior part of the human infant sclera. Although the differences in the gene expression profiles between the anterior and posterior sclera might be involved only in normal growth processes, this anteroposterior hierarchy in the sclera might contribute to disorders involving abnormal elongation and deformity of the eyeball, including myopia.

Enhanced ectopic bone formation using a combination of plasmid DNA impregnation into 3-D scaffold and bioreactor perfusion culture.

The objective of this study is to enhance in vivo ectopic bone formation by combination of plasmid DNA impregnation into three-dimensional (3-D) cell scaffolds and a developed in vitro culture method. Gelatin was cationized by introducing spermine (Sm) to the carboxyl groups for complexation with the plasmid DNA. As the MSC scaffold, collagen sponge reinforced by incorporation of poly(glycolic acid) (PGA) fibers was used. A complex of the cationized gelatin and plasmid DNA of BMP-2 was impregnated into the scaffold. MCS were seeded into each scaffold and cultured by a static and perfusion methods. When MSC were cultured in the PGA-reinforced collagen sponge, the level of BMP-2 expression was significantly enhanced by the perfusion culture compared with static method. When the osteoinduction activity of the PGA-reinforced collagen sponges seeded with PBS, MSC, naked plasmid DNA-BMP-2, cationized gelatin-plasmid DNA-BMP-2 complex, and transfected MSC by static and perfusion method, were studied following the implantation into the back subcutis of rats in terms of histological and biochemical examinations, homogeneous bone formation was histologically observed throughout the sponges seeded with cationized gelatin-plasmid DNA of BMP-2 complex and transfected MSC by perfusion method, although the extent of bone formation was higher for the later one. The level of alkaline phosphatase activity and osteocalcin content at the implanted sites of sponges seeded with transfected MSC by perfusion method were significantly high compared with those seeded with other agents. We conclude that combination of plasmid DNA-impregnated PGA-reinforced collagen sponge and the perfusion method was promising to promote the in vitro gene expression for MSC and in vivo ectopic bone formation.

Combination of 3D tissue engineered scaffold and non-viral gene carrier enhance in vitro DNA expression of mesenchymal stem cells.

The objective of this study is to enhance the expression of a plasmid DNA for mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) by combination of 3-dimensional (3D) tissue engineered scaffolds and non-viral gene carrier. As a carrier of plasmid DNA, dextran-spermine cationic polysaccharide was prepared by means of reductive-amination between oxidized dextran and the natural oligoamine, spermine. As the MSC scaffold, collagen sponges reinforced by incorporation of poly(glycolic acid) (PGA) fibers were used. A complex of the cationized dextran and plasmid DNA of BMP-2 was impregnated into the scaffolds. MCS were seeded into each scaffold and cultured by a 3D culture method. When MSC were cultured in the PGA-reinforced sponge, the level of BMP-2 expression was significantly enhanced by the cationized dextran-plasmid DNA complex impregnated into the scaffold than by the cationized dextran-plasmid DNA complex in 2-dimensional (2D) (tissue culture plate) culture method. The alkaline phosphatase activity and osteocalcin content of transfected MSC cultured in the PGA-reinforced sponge were significantly higher compared with 2D culture method. We conclude that combination of cationized dextran plasmid DNA complex and 3D tissue engineered scaffold was promising to promote the in vitro gene expression for MSC.

Microgravity signal ensnarls cell adhesion, cytoskeleton, and matrix proteins of rat osteoblasts: osteopontin, CD44, osteonectin, and alpha-tubulin.

Rat osteoblasts were cultured for 4 or 5 days aboard the Space Shuttle and solubilized during spaceflight. Post-flight analyses by quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) determined the relative mRNA levels of matrix proteins, adhesion molecules, and cytoskeletal proteins including osteopontin (OP), osteonectin (ON), CD44, alpha-tubulin, actin, vimentin, fibronectin (FN), and beta1-integrin. The mRNA levels of OP and alpha-tubulin in the flight cultures were decreased by 30% and 50% on day 4 and day 5 of flight, as compared to the ground controls. In contrast, the CD44 mRNA levels in the flight cultures increased by 280% and 570% of the ground controls on day 4 and day 5. The mRNA levels of ON and FN in the flight cultures were slightly increased as compared to ground controls. The mRNA levels of actin, vimentin, or beta1-integrin did not change in spaceflight conditions. The matrix proteins, adhesion molecules, and cytoskeletal proteins may form dynamic network complexity with signaling molecules as an adaptive response to perturbation of mechanical stress under microgravity.

Impregnation of plasmid DNA into three-dimensional scaffolds and medium perfusion enhance in vitro DNA expression of mesenchymal stem cells.

This article describes the development of an in vitro culture system to enhance the expression of a plasmid DNA for mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) by a combination of plasmid DNA impregnation into three-dimensional cell scaffolds and culture methods. Gelatin was cationized by introducing spermine to the carboxyl groups for complexation with the plasmid DNA. As the MSC scaffold, poly(glycolic acid) (PGA) fiber fabrics, collagen sponges, and collagen sponges reinforced by incorporation of PGA fibers were used. A complex of cationized gelatin and plasmid DNA encoding bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP-2) was impregnated into the scaffolds. Plasmid DNA was released from PGA-reinforced collagen sponge for longer than from the other scaffolds. MCS were seeded into each type of scaffold and cultured by static, stirring, and perfusion methods. When MSCs were cultured in PGA-reinforced sponge, the level of BMP-2 expression was significantly enhanced by perfusion culture compared with the other culture methods, and the time of expression was prolonged. Irrespective of the culture method, the expression level was significantly higher from plasmid DNA impregnated in scaffold than by plasmid DNA in medium. The alkaline phosphatase activity and osteocalcin content of MSCs cultured in PGA-reinforced sponge by the perfusion method were significantly higher compared with those of other methods, and a significantly higher amount of plasmid DNA internalized into MSCs was observed. We conclude that a combination of plasmid DNA-impregnated PGA-reinforced sponge and the perfusion method was promising to promote in vitro gene expression for MSCs.

Effects of retinoic acid on the differentiation of chondrogenic progenitor cells, ATDC5.

Chondrocyte differentiation is a fundamental process during endochondral ossification. Retinoic acid (RA) has been shown to regulate this process, however, the mechanisms underlying RA regulation of chondrogenesis are not clearly understood. Chondroprogenitor cells, ATDC5 have been shown to be a useful in vitro model for examining the multiple step differentiation of chondrocytes. The present study investigated the mechanisms underlying RA regulation of chondrogenesis using ATDC5 cell culture. In this study, we show that RA suppresses the cell growth, cartilage nodule formation, accumulation of proteoglycan, alkaline phosphatase (ALPase) activity and mineralization and that RA dose dependently upregulates the levels of type X collagen and matrix metalloproteinase-13 (MMP-13) mRNA which are marker proteins of hypertrophic chondrocytes, in ATDC5 cells. The addition of protein synthesis inhibitor, cycloheximide (CHX), partially inhibits the induction of type X collagen and MMP-13 mRNA by RA. In this system, RA upregulates the mRNA level of Runx2/Cbfa1 (type II), a positive regulator for mineralization, and downregulates the mRNA of Indian hedgehog (Ihh), parathyroid hormone related protein (PTHrP), negative regulators for terminal differentiation. However, RA downregulates ALPase, bone gla protein (BGP) mRNAs and mineralization. These data indicate that RA stimulates cartilage differentiation, however, cell condensation and cartilage nodule formation may be candidates of primary importance in the terminal differentiation of chondrocytes.

Platelet-activating factor receptor signals in rat osteoblasts during spaceflight.

The platelet-activating factor (PAF) is a lipid mediator. The G-protein-coupled receptor of PAF (PAF-R) is activated by inflammatory and stressful conditions in numerous cell types. PAF/PAF-R is involved in apoptotic and antiapoptotic processes. We examined microgravity effects on the expression of PAF-R and second messengers in rat osteoblasts. The PAF-R signals are transmitted via arachidonic acid, phospholipase C (PLC), protein kinase C (PKC), and mitogen-activated protein kinase. Rat osteoblasts were cultured for 4 and 5 days aboard a space shuttle and solubilized on board. PAF-R gene expression in flight cultures increased to 2-6-fold higher than in ground controls. Gene expression of the G-protein alpha subunit Galphaq in flight cultures increased to 3-fold and higher than in ground controls. It is known that Galphaq stimulates the effecter PLCbeta, activating PKC. The mRNA levels of PKCdelta and PKCtheta in flight cultures were increased to 2-5-fold higher than in ground controls. The PKCalpha mRNA level in flight cultures was increased to 3-fold higher than in ground controls on the 4th day. Gene expression of catalytic and regulatory subunits of protein kinase A was suppressed in flight cultures. PKCdelta and PKCtheta are novel PKCs that can be target substrates of caspases. The PAF-R gene may act as a mechano-sensitive gene that is involved in the apoptotic and antiapoptotic processes of osteoblasts under microgravity.

Hypergravity stimulates osteoblast phenotype expression: a therapeutic hint for disuse bone atrophy.

Physiological actions of osteoblasts are disordered by gravity unloading. We investigated the possibility that the appropriate level of hypergravity could improve osteoblast functions that are susceptible to mechanical unloading. We evaluated hypergravity effects on the 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) (VD)-inducible osteocalcin expression of primary rat osteoblasts. Cell culture plates were centrifuged for 24 h at 3, 6, 12, 24, and 48 g in a 37 degrees C incubator. The mRNA levels were analyzed by quantitative RT-PCR. The mRNA levels for osteocalcin and vitamin D receptor (VD-R) at 12 g were enhanced to 187% and 228% of the 1 g control, respectively. However, the excess hypergravity conversely decreased osteocalcin expression. Osteocalcin gene expression was enhanced by VD/VD-R through the vitamin D-responsive element in the promoter. The increased osteocalcin expression might reflect the augmented VD-R expression. Alternatively, Runx2, a master gene of osteoblast differentiation, might be responsible for the osteocalcin induction, since the Runx2 mRNA levels were also increased to 247% of control at 12 g. Another VD-inducible osteoblast phenotype, alkaline phosphatase, was also upregulated at 12 g and 24 g. The appropriate level of hypergravity enhanced the VD-inducible expression of osteocalcin, a typical phenotype of osteoblast differentiation. These data suggest molecular features to prevent disuse bone atrophy of long-term bed-rest patients.

Antagonism between apoptotic (Bax/Bcl-2) and anti-apoptotic (IAP) signals in human osteoblastic cells under vector-averaged gravity condition.

A functional disorder associated with weightlessness is well documented in osteoblasts. The apototic features of this disorder are poorly understood. Harmful stress induces apoptosis in cells via mitochondria and/or Fas. The Bax triggers cytochrome c release from mitochondria, which can be blocked by the Bcl-2. Released cytochrome c then activates the initiator caspase, caspase-9, which can be blocked by the anti-apototic (IAP) family of molecules. The effector caspase, caspase-3, finally exerts DNA fragmentation. We conducted this study to examine the apoptotic effects of vector-averaged gravity on normal human osteoblastic cells. Cell culture flasks were incubated on the clinostat, which generated vector-averaged gravity condition (simulated microgravity) for 12, 24, 48, and 96 hours. Upon termination of clinostat cultures, the cell number and cell viability were assessed. DNA fragmentation was analyzed on the agarose-gel electrophoresis. The mRNA levels for Bax, Bcl-2, XIAP, and caspase-3 genes were analyzed by semi-quantitative RT-PCR. Twenty-four hours after starting clinostat rotation, the ratios of Bax/Bcl-2 mRNA levels (indicator of apoptosis) were significantly increased to 136% of the 1G static controls. However, the XIAP mRNA levels (anti-apoptotic molecule) were increased concomitantly to 138% of the 1G static controls. Thus, cell proliferation or cell viability was not affected by vector-averaged gravity. DNA fragmentation was not observed in clinostat group as well as in control group. Finally, the caspase-3 mRNA levels were not affected by vector-averaged gravity. Simulated microgravity might modulate some apoptotic signals upstream the mitochondrial pathway.

Coinduction of GTP cyclohydrolase I and inducible NO synthase in rat osteoblasts during space flight: apoptotic and self-protective response?

The mechanism underlying space flight-induced osteopenia is unknown. In osteoblasts, the inducible nitric oxide (NO) synthase (iNOS) is involved in the early response to mechanical strain and induction of apoptosis. GTP cyclohydrolase I (GTPCH) is a key enzyme that is essential for iNOS activity. The coordinate expression of GTPCH prevents apoptosis that is induced by iNOS/NO. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of space flight on the expression of apoptotic/anti-apoptotic molecules iNOS and GTPCH in rat osteoblasts. Rat osteoblasts were cultured aboard a space shuttle and solubilized on the 4th and 5th days of the mission. The mRNA levels for iNOS and GTPCH in the flight cultures were increased to at least 120-fold and threefold higher than the ground (1 x g) controls, respectively. The amount of cellular DNA per flight culture vessel was 53% and 58% of the ground controls on the 4th and 5th days, respectively. However, the increasing rate of the DNA amount from the 4th to the 5th day was not different between the flight cultures and the ground controls. Morphologically, the cells grew in space as well as on the ground. Co-expression of GTPCH and iNOS may indicate a self-protective mode of action in osteoblasts against the harmful stress under microgravity.

Osteoblast responsiveness to 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 during spaceflight.

Rat osteoblasts were cultured aboard a space shuttle for 4 and 5 days. Cells were treated with 1 nM 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) (VD) for the last 1 day. The conditioned media were harvested. Cells were solubilized with guanidine solution on board. We examined microgravity effects on the production/expression of osteocalcin, bone sialoprotein (BSP), and VD receptor (VD-R) in osteoblasts. Under VD treatment, the osteocalcin protein level was 243 +/- 117 and 1,718 +/- 534 pg/microg cellular DNA in flight cultures and ground controls, respectively. Without VD treatment, the osteocalcin protein level was not different between flight cultures and ground controls. The osteocalcin mRNA level in the VD-treated flight cultures was as low as 16% of that in ground controls. The VD-R mRNA level in the VD-treated flight cultures was also decreased to 16% of that in ground controls. Microgravity would suppress the VD-inducible production of osteocalcin but not the basal productivity. The BSP mRNA level was increased by microgravity. VD/VD-R binds to the vitamin D-responsive element (VDRE) on the target genes. The rat osteocalcin gene is positively regulated via "enhancer" VDRE, whereas the rat BSP gene is negatively regulated via "repressor " VDRE. Microgravity might modulate osteoblast responsiveness to VD through the suppression of VD-R.

Space flight and insulin-like growth factor-I signaling in rat osteoblasts.

The primary culture of rat osteoblasts was treated with 1alpha,25 dihydroxyvitamin D(3) and fixed with guanidine isothiocyanate solution during a space shuttle flight. The mRNA levels were analyzed by quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Microgravity decreased the mRNA levels of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and increased reciprocally the IGF-I receptor mRNA levels, as compared to the ground (1 x g) control. Microgravity completely suppressed the mRNA expression of the insulin receptor substrate-1, the postreceptor signaling molecule of IGF-I. Microgravity might deteriorate the action and signaling of IGF-I in rat osteoblasts.

Inhibition of HSP70 and a collagen-specific molecular chaperone (HSP47) expression in rat osteoblasts by microgravity.

Rat osteoblasts were cultured aboard a space shuttle for 4 or 5 days. Cells were exposed to 1alpha, 25 dihydroxyvitamin D(3) during the last 20 h and then solubilized by guanidine solution. The mRNA levels for molecular chaperones were analyzed by semi-quantitative RT-PCR. ELISA was used to quantify TGF-beta1 in the conditioned medium. The HSP70 mRNA levels in the flight cultures were almost completely suppressed, as compared to the ground (1 x g) controls. The inducible HSP70 is known as the major heat shock protein that prevents stress-induced apoptosis. The mean mRNA levels for the constitutive HSC73 in the flight cultures were reduced to 69%, approximately 60% of the ground controls. HSC73 is reported to prevent the pathological state that is induced by disruption of microtubule network. The mean HSP47 mRNA levels in the flight cultures were decreased to 50% and 19% of the ground controls on the 4th and 5th days. Concomitantly, the concentration of TGF-beta1 in the conditioned medium of the flight cultures was reduced to 37% and 19% of the ground controls on the 4th and 5th days. HSP47 is the collagen-specific molecular chaperone that controls collagen processing and quality and is regulated by TGF-beta1. Microgravity differentially modulated the expression of molecular chaperones in osteoblasts, which might be involved in induction and/or prevention of osteopenia in space.

Involvement of mechanical stretch in the gelatinolytic activity of the fibrous sclera of chicks, in vitro.

PURPOSE: To investigate the role of mechanical stretch in the regulation of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) in scleral fibroblasts of chick embryos. METHODS: Scleral fibroblasts derived from chick embryos were seeded onto flexible bottom culture plates, and subjected to a pulsatile stretch when the cells became subconfluent. After stretching, the cells and the conditioned medium were harvested. One portion of the conditioned medium was activated by reduction, alkylation, and 4-aminophenylmercuric acetate (APMA) treatment. The conditioned medium, with and without the treatment, was subjected to gelatin zymography and quantitative assays. Total cytoplasmic RNA was extracted from the cells, and the expression of MMP-2 and the tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2 (TIMP-2) mRNA was examined by Northern blot analysis. RESULTS: The predominant gelatinolytic enzyme secreted by scleral fibroblasts was MMP-2. The mechanical stretch increased the gelatinolytic activities significantly in the conditioned medium with reduction, alkylation, and APMA treatment. Mechanical stretch also enhanced the expression of MMP-2 and TIMP-2 mRNA in scleral fibroblasts significantly. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that mechanical stretch may be involved in the regulation of the extracellular matrix in the fibrous sclera of chicks in vivo.