Cefepime Precision Dosing Tool: from Standard to Precise Dose Using Nonparametric Population Pharmacokinetics.

Cefepime is the second most common cephalosporin used in U.S. hospitals. We aim to develop and validate a cefepime population pharmacokinetic (PK) model and integrate it into a precision dosing tool for implementation. Two data sets (680 patients) were used to build the cefepime PK model in Pmetrics, and three data sets (34 patients) were used for the validation. A separate application data set (115 patients) was used for the implementation and validation of a precision dosing tool. The model support points and covariates were used to generate the optimal initial dose (OID). Cefepime PK was described by a two-compartment model including weight and creatinine clearance (CrCl) as covariates. The median rate of elimination was 0.30 h-1 (adults) and 0.96 h-1 (children), the central volume of distribution was 13.85 L, and the rate of transfer from the central to the peripheral compartments was 1.22 h-1 and from the peripheral to the central compartments was 1.38 h-1. After integration in BestDose, the observed versus predicted cefepime concentration fit using the application data set was excellent (R2 > 0.98), and the median difference between what was observed and what BestDose predicted on a second occasion was 4%. For the OID, cefepime at a 0.5- to 1-g 4-h infusion every 8 to 24 h (q8 to 24 h) with a CrCl of <70 mL/min was needed to achieve a target range of free trough:MIC 1 to 4 at a MIC of 8 mg/L, while continuous infusion was needed for higher CrCl and weight values. In conclusion, we developed and validated a cefepime model for clinical application. The model was integrated in a precision dosing tool for implementation, and the median concentration prediction bias was 4%. The OID algorithm was provided.

Using Population Pharmacokinetic Modeling and Monte Carlo Simulations To Determine whether Standard Doses of Piperacillin in Piperacillin-Tazobactam Regimens Are Adequate for the Management of Febrile Neutropenia.

Changes in the pharmacokinetics of piperacillin in febrile neutropenic patients have been reported to result in suboptimal exposures. This study aimed to develop a population pharmacokinetic model for piperacillin and perform dosing simulation to describe optimal dosing regimens for hematological malignancy patients with febrile neutropenia. Concentration-time data were obtained from previous prospective observational pharmacokinetic and interventional therapeutic drug monitoring studies. Nonparametric population pharmacokinetic analysis and Monte Carlo dosing simulations were performed with the Pmetrics package for R. A two-compartment model, with between-subject variability for clearance (CL), adequately described the data from 37 patients (21 males, age of 59 ± 12 years [means ± standard deviations] and weight of 77 ± 16 kg). Parameter estimates were CL of 18.0 ± 4.8 liters/h, volume of distribution of the central compartment of 14.3 ± 7.3 liters, rate constant for piperacillin distribution from the central to peripheral compartment of 1.40 ± 1.35 h-1, and rate constant for piperacillin distribution from the peripheral to central compartment of 4.99 ± 7.81 h-1 High creatinine clearance (CLCR) was associated with reduced probability of target attainment (PTA). Extended and continuous infusion regimens achieved a high PTA of >90% for an unbound concentration of piperacillin remaining above the MIC (fT>MIC) of 50%. Only continuous regimens achieved >90% PTA for 100% fT>MIC when CLCR was high. The cumulative fraction of response (FTA, for fractional target attainment) was suboptimal (<85%) for conventional regimens for both empirical and directed therapy considering 50% and 100% fT>MIC FTA was maximized with prolonged infusions. Overall, changes in piperacillin pharmacokinetics and the consequences on therapeutic dosing requirements appear similar to those observed in intensive care patients. Guidelines should address the altered dosing needs of febrile neutropenic patients exhibiting high CLCR or with known/presumed infections from high-MIC bacteria.

Pharmacodynamics of Aerosolized Fosfomycin and Amikacin against Resistant Clinical Isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae in a Hollow-Fiber Infection Model: Experimental Basis for Combination Therapy.

There has been a resurgence of interest in aerosolization of antibiotics for treatment of patients with severe pneumonia caused by multidrug-resistant pathogens. A combination formulation of amikacin-fosfomycin is currently undergoing clinical testing although the exposure-response relationships of these drugs have not been fully characterized. The aim of this study was to describe the individual and combined antibacterial effects of simulated epithelial lining fluid exposures of aerosolized amikacin and fosfomycin against resistant clinical isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MICs of 16 mg/liter and 64 mg/liter) and Klebsiella pneumoniae (MICs of 2 mg/liter and 64 mg/liter) using a dynamic hollow-fiber infection model over 7 days. Targeted peak concentrations of 300 mg/liter amikacin and/or 1,200 mg/liter fosfomycin as a 12-hourly dosing regimens were used. Quantitative cultures were performed to describe changes in concentrations of the total and resistant bacterial populations. The targeted starting inoculum was 108 CFU/ml for both strains. We observed that neither amikacin nor fosfomycin monotherapy was bactericidal against P. aeruginosa while both were associated with rapid amplification of resistant P. aeruginosa strains (about 108 to 109 CFU/ml within 24 to 48 h). For K. pneumoniae, amikacin but not fosfomycin was bactericidal. When both drugs were combined, a rapid killing was observed for P. aeruginosa and K. pneumoniae (6-log kill within 24 h). Furthermore, the combination of amikacin and fosfomycin effectively suppressed growth of resistant strains of P. aeruginosa and K. pneumoniae In conclusion, the combination of amikacin and fosfomycin was effective at maximizing bacterial killing and suppressing emergence of resistance against these clinical isolates.

Adequacy of high-dose cefepime regimen in febrile neutropenic patients with hematological malignancies.

While guidelines recommend empirical cefepime therapy in febrile neutropenia, the mortality benefit of cefepime has been controversial. In light of this, recent reports on pharmacokinetic changes for several antibiotics in febrile neutropenia and the consequent suboptimal exposure call for a pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic evaluation of current dosing. This study aimed to assess pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic target attainment from a 2-g intravenous (i.v.) every 8 h (q8h) cefepime regimen in febrile neutropenic patients with hematological malignancies. Cefepime plasma concentrations were measured in the 3rd, 6th, and 9th dosing intervals at 60% of the interval and/or trough point. The selected pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic targets were the proportion of the dosing interval (60% and 100%) for which the free drug concentration remains above the MIC (fT>MIC). Target attainment was assessed in reference to the MIC of isolated organisms if available or empirical breakpoints if not. The percentage of fT>MIC was also estimated by log-linear regression analysis. All patients achieved >60% fT>MIC in the 3rd and 6th dosing intervals. A 100% fT>MIC was not attained in 6/12, 4/10, and 4/9 patients in the 3rd, 6th, and 9th dose intervals, respectively, or in 14/31 (45%) of the dosing intervals investigated. On the other hand, 29/31 (94%) of trough concentrations were at or above 4 mg/liter. In conclusion, for patients with normal renal function, a high-dose 2-g i.v. q8h cefepime regimen appears to provide appropriate exposure if the MIC of the organism is ≤4 mg/liter but may fail to cover less susceptible organisms.

Can therapeutic drug monitoring optimize exposure to piperacillin in febrile neutropenic patients with haematological malignancies? A randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this study were to describe piperacillin exposure in febrile neutropenia patients and determine whether therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) can be used to increase the achievement of pharmacokinetic (PK)/pharmacodynamic (PD) targets. METHODS: In a prospective randomized controlled study (Australian New Zealand Registry, ACTRN12615000086561), patients were subjected to TDM for 3 consecutive days. Dose was adjusted in the intervention group to achieve a free drug concentration above the MIC for 100% of the dose interval (100% fT>MIC), which was also the primary outcome measure. The secondary PK/PD target was 50% fT>MIC. Duration of fever and days to recovery from neutropenia were recorded. RESULTS: Thirty-two patients were enrolled. Initially, patients received 4.5 g of piperacillin/tazobactam every 8 h or every 6 h along with gentamicin co-therapy in 30/32 (94%) patients. At the first TDM, 7/32 (22%) patients achieved 100% fT>MIC and 12/32 (38%) patients achieved 50% fT>MIC. Following dose adjustment, 11/16 (69%) of intervention patients versus 3/16 (19%) of control patients (P = 0.012) attained 100% fT>MIC, and 15/16 (94%) of intervention patients versus 5/16 (31%) of control patients (P = 0.001) achieved 50% fT>MIC. After the third TDM, the proportion of patients attaining 100% fT>MIC improved from a baseline 3/16 (19%) to 11/15 (73%) in the intervention group, while it declined from 4/16 (25%) to 1/15 (7%) in the control group. No difference was noted in the duration of fever and days to recovery from neutropenia. CONCLUSIONS: Conventional doses of piperacillin/tazobactam may not offer adequate piperacillin exposure in febrile neutropenic patients. TDM provides useful feedback of dosing adequacy to guide dose optimization.

Altered pharmacokinetics of piperacillin in febrile neutropenic patients with hematological malignancy.

This study assessed the pharmacokinetics and dosing adequacy of piperacillin in febrile neutropenic patients after the first dose. Pharmacokinetic analysis was performed using noncompartmental methods. We observed an elevated volume of distribution (29.7 ± 8.0 liters [mean ± standard deviation]) and clearance (20.2 ± 7.5 liters/h) compared to data from other patient populations. Antibiotic exposure did not consistently result in therapeutic targets. We conclude that alternative dosing strategies guided by therapeutic drug monitoring may be required to optimize exposure.

An international, multicentre survey of ß-lactam antibiotic therapeutic drug monitoring practice in intensive care units.

OBJECTIVES: Emerging evidence supports the use of therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) of ß-lactams for intensive care unit (ICU) patients to optimize drug exposure, although limited detail is available on how sites run this service in practice. This multicentre survey study was performed to describe the various approaches used for ß-lactam TDM in ICUs. METHODS: A questionnaire survey was developed to describe various aspects relating to the conduct of ß-lactam TDM in an ICU setting. Data sought included: ß-lactams chosen for TDM, inclusion criteria for selecting patients, blood sampling strategy, analytical methods, pharmacokinetic (PK)/pharmacodynamic (PD) targets and dose adjustment strategies. RESULTS: Nine ICUs were included in this survey. Respondents were either ICU or infectious disease physicians, pharmacists or clinical pharmacologists. Piperacillin (co-formulated with tazobactam) and meropenem (100% of units surveyed) were the ß-lactams most commonly subject to TDM, followed by ceftazidime (78%), ceftriaxone (43%) and cefazolin (43%). Different chromatographic and microbiological methods were used for assay of ß-lactam concentrations in blood and other biological fluids (e.g. CSF). There was significant variation in the PK/PD targets (100% fT>MIC up to 100% fT>4×MIC) and dose adjustment strategies used by each of the sites. CONCLUSIONS: Large variations were found in the type of ß-lactams tested, the patients selected for TDM and drug assay methods. Significant variation observed in the PK/PD targets and dose adjustment strategies used supports the need for further studies that robustly define PK/PD targets for ICU patients to ensure a greater consistency of practice for dose adjustment strategies for optimizing ß-lactam dosing with TDM.

How do we use therapeutic drug monitoring to improve outcomes from severe infections in critically ill patients?

High mortality and morbidity rates associated with severe infections in the critically ill continue to be a significant issue for the healthcare system. In view of the diverse and unique pharmacokinetic profile of drugs in this patient population, there is increasing use of therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) in attempt to optimize the exposure of antibiotics, improve clinical outcome and minimize the emergence of antibiotic resistance. Despite this, a beneficial clinical outcome for TDM of antibiotics has only been demonstrated for aminoglycosides in a general hospital patient population. Clinical outcome studies for other antibiotics remain elusive. Further, there is significant variability among institutions with respect to the practice of TDM including the selection of patients, sampling time for concentration monitoring, methodologies of antibiotic assay, selection of PK/PD targets as well as dose optimisation strategies. The aim of this paper is to review the available evidence relating to practices of antibiotic TDM, and describe how TDM can be applied to potentially improve outcomes from severe infections in the critically ill.

Evaluation of the stability of aciclovir in elastomeric infusion devices used for outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the stability of aciclovir solutions in elastomeric devices used for outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy (OPAT). METHODS: Triplicates of two elastomeric devices, Accufuser and Easypump II, were filled with a solution of 200 mg, 2400 mg, and 4500 mg aciclovir in 240 mL 0.9% w/v saline. Devices were stored at room temperature for 14 days, followed by 24 hours storage at 32°C. Assessment using a stability indicating assay, pH and subvisible particle analysis was undertaken at 11 time points throughout the study. RESULTS: Aciclovir solution at 200 mg and 2400 mg in 240 mL was stable for 14 days at room temperature (<20°C) and 24 hours of 32°C 'in-use' temperature exposure, remaining above the 95% limit for NHS stability protocols. The high dose was also stable for 14 days at room temperature, but when stored at 32°C there was precipitation of aciclovir within 4 hours in both devices. The precipitate was confirmed as aciclovir and precipitation was not a sign of chemical degradation. CONCLUSIONS: Aciclovir concentrations above 2400 mg/240 mL are liable to precipitation and cannot be recommended for OPAT services because of heightened risks of nephrotoxicity. Aciclovir solution can be given as a continuous 24-hour infusion for OPAT services at a concentration range of 200-2400 mg in 240 mL in Accufuser and Easypump II elastomeric devices following 14 days storage at room temperature, protected from light.

Evaluation of the stability of temocillin in elastomeric infusion devices used for outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy in accordance with the requirements of the UK NHS Yellow Cover Document.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the stability of temocillin solution in two elastomeric infusion devices - Easypump II LT 270-27- S and Dosi-Fusor L25915-250D1 for OPAT administration during 14 days of 5°C±3°C fridge storage followed by 24 hour exposure at an in-use temperature of 32°C, when reconstituted with 0.3% citrate buffer at pH7. METHODS: Stability testing was conducted in accordance with standard protocols in the UK National Health Service Yellow Cover Document (YCD). A stability indicating assay method was applied using a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) system with a photodiode array detector. Low (500 mg/240 mL), intermediate (4000 mg/240 mL) and high (6000 mg/240 mL) temocillin concentrations were tested in triplicate devices with duplicate samples taken at 11 time points during fridge storage and subsequent in-use temperature exposure. RESULT: The percentage of temocillin remaining after 14 days of fridge storage was greater than 97% in both devices and at all concentrations tested. During subsequent in-use temperature exposure, a 95% stability limit was achieved for 12 hours except for the high concentration (25 mg/mL) in the Dosi-Fusor device. It met this criterion for only 10 hours - the percent of temocillin remaining at 12 hours was 94.5%. However, for all devices and the doses tested, the degradation of temocillin was <9% at the end of 24 hours in-use temperature exposure. CONCLUSION: Temocillin reconstituted with 0.3% citrate buffer at pH7 in elastomeric infusion devices can be stored in a fridge (2°C-8°C) for 14 days meeting the YCD acceptance criteria. Considering <5% degradation, the current data supports twice daily dosing of temocillin within the OPAT setting. In jurisdictions where a <10% degradation limit is acceptable, once daily dosing with 24-hour continuous infusion may be considered. Temocillin is a useful alternative to other broad-spectrum anti-Gram-negative agents currently utilised in the OPAT setting and supports the wider antimicrobial stewardship agenda.

An in vitro dynamic bioreactor model for evaluating antimicrobial effectiveness on periodontal polymicrobial biofilms: a proof-of-concept study.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to investigate an in vitro dynamic bioreactor model by evaluating the antimicrobial effect of clinically relevant amoxicillin doses on polymicrobial microcosm biofilms derived from subgingival plaque. METHODS: Biofilms from pooled subgingival plaque were grown for 108  hours in control and experimental dynamic biofilm reactors. Amoxicillin was subsequently infused into the experimental reactor to simulate the pharmacokinetic profile of a standard 500 mg thrice-daily dosing regimen over 5 days and biofilms were assessed by live/dead staining, scanning electron microscopy, and quantitative polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS: Following establishment of the oral microcosm biofilms, confocal imaging analysis showed a significant increase in dead bacteria at 8 hours (p = 0.0095), 48 hours (p = 0.0070), 96 hours (p = 0.0140), and 120 hours (p < 0.0001) in the amoxicillin-treated biofilms compared to the control biofilms. Nevertheless, viable bacteria remained in the center of the biofilm at all timepoints. Significant reductions/elimination in Campylobacter rectus, Tannerella forsythia, Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, and Peptostreptococcus anaerobius was observed among the amoxicillin-treated biofilms at the 96 and 120 hour timepoints. CONCLUSION: A novel in vitro dynamic model of oral microcosm biofilms was effective in modeling the antimicrobial effect of a pharmacokinetically simulated clinically relevant dose of amoxicillin.

Evaluation of Fosfomycin-Sulbactam Combination Therapy against Carbapenem-Resistant Acinetobacter baumannii Isolates in a Hollow-Fibre Infection Model.

Static concentration in vitro studies have demonstrated that fosfomycin- or sulbactam-based combinations may be efficacious against carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii (CRAB). In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the bacterial killing and resistance suppression potential of fosfomycin-sulbactam combination therapies against CRAB isolates in a dynamic infection model. We simulated clinically relevant dosing regimens of fosfomycin (8 g every 8 h, 1 h infusion) and sulbactam (12 g continuous infusion or 4 g every 8 h, 4 h infusion) alone and in combination for 7 days in a hollow-fibre infection model (HFIM) against three clinical isolates of CRAB. The simulated pharmacokinetic profiles in the HFIM were based on fosfomycin and sulbactam data from critically ill patients. Fosfomycin monotherapy resulted in limited bacterial killing. Sulbactam monotherapies resulted in ~ 3 to 4 log10 kill within the first 8 to 32 h followed by regrowth of up to 8 to 10 log10 CFU/mL. A combination of fosfomycin and continuous infusion of sulbactam led to a ~2 to 4 log10 reduction in bacterial burden within the first 24 h, which was sustained throughout the duration of the experiments. A combination of fosfomycin and extended infusion of sulbactam produced a ~4 log10 reduction in colony count within 24 h. This study demonstrated that fosfomycin in combination with sulbactam is a promising option for the treatment of MDR A. baumannii. Further studies are needed to further assess the potential clinical utility of this combination.

Microfluidic assembly of pomegranate-like hierarchical microspheres for efflux regulation in oral drug delivery.

Herein, a multi-functional nano-in-micro hierarchical microsphere system is demonstrated for controlling the intestinal efflux pumps that affect the oral bioavailability of many therapeutic drugs. The hierarchical particles were generated by a co-flow microfluidic device and consisted of porous silica nanoparticles packed in Eudragit® polymeric matrix. Meropenem (MER), a last-resort antibacterial drug, was loaded into porous silica (MCM-48) with a loading capacity of 34.3 wt%. In this unique materials combination, MCM-48 enables ultrahigh loading of a hydrophilic MER, while the Eudragit® polymers not only protect MER from gastric pH but also act as an antagonist for p-glycoprotein protein efflux pumps to reduce the efflux of MER back into the gastrointestinal lumen. We investigated the in-vitro temporal MER release and bidirectional (absorptive and secretory) drug permeation model across the Caco-2 monolayer. The bioavailability of MER was significantly improved by all of the prepared formulations (i.e. increased absorptive transport and reduced secretory transport). The Eudragit® RSPO formulated MER-MCM showed the best performance with an efflux ratio (i.e. secretory transport/absorptive transport) of 0.35, which is 7.4 folds less than pure MER (2.62). Lastly, the prepared formulations were able to retain the antibacterial activity of MER against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Meropenem (MER) is a last resort antibiotic used for the treatment of drug-resistant and acute infections and only available as intravenous injectable dosage due to its poor chemical and thermal stability, and ultra-poor oral bioavailability because of the efflux action of P-glycoprotein (P-gp) pumps. Multifunctional colloidal micro/nanoparticles can help to solve these issues. Herein, we designed pomegranate-like hierarchical microspheres comprised of porous silica nanoparticles and enteric Eudragit® polymers (Eudragit®S100, Eudragit®RSPO, and Eudragit®RS100) using a co-flow microfluidic device. Our formulations allow for ultrahigh loading of hydrophilic MER, protects MER from gastric pH, and also block P-gp efflux pumps for enhanced MER permeation/retention with Eudragit®RSPO - showing 13.9-folds higher permeation and 7.4-folds reduction in efflux ratio in a bi-directional Caco-2 monolayer culture system.

Pharmacodynamic Evaluation of a Single Dose versus a 24-Hour Course of Multiple Doses of Cefazolin for Surgical Prophylaxis.

The optimal perioperative duration for the administration of cefazolin and other prophylactic antibiotics remains unclear. This study aimed to describe the pharmacodynamics of cefazolin for a single 2 g dose versus a 24 h course of a 2 g single dose plus a 1 g eight-hourly regimen against methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus. Static concentration time-kill assay and a dynamic in vitro hollow-fibre infection model simulating humanised plasma and interstitial fluid exposures of cefazolin were used to characterise the pharmacodynamics of prophylactic cefazolin regimens against methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus clinical isolates. The initial inoculum was 1 × 105 CFU/mL to mimic a high skin flora inoculum. The static time-kill study showed that increasing the cefazolin concentration above 1 mg/L (the MIC) did not increase the rate or the extent of bacterial killing. In the dynamic hollow-fibre model, both dosing regimens achieved similar bacterial killing (~3-log CFU/mL within 24 h). A single 2 g dose may be adequate when low bacterial burdens (~104 CFU/mL) are anticipated in an immunocompetent patient with normal pharmacokinetics.

Liquid CO2 Formulated Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for pH-Responsive Oral Delivery of Meropenem.

Meropenem (MER) is an effective broad-spectrum antibiotic currently only available in the parenteral form requiring frequent drug preparation and administration due to its extremely poor stability. The unavailability of oral Meropenem is primarily due to its ultrapoor handling and processing stability, hydrophilic nature that inhibits the passive diffusion across the gastrointestinal (GI) epithelium, degradation in the harsh gastric environment, and GI expulsion through enterocyte efflux glycoproteins. In this regard, we have developed an oral drug delivery system that confines MER into mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs i.e, MCM-41 ∼141 nm) using a novel liquid carbon dioxide (CO2) method. MER was efficiently encapsulated within pristine, phosphonate (negatively charged MSN), and amine (positively charged MSN) modified MSNs with loading capacity ranging between 25 wt % and 31 wt %. Next, the MER-MCM-NH2 particles were electrostatically coated with Eudragit S100 enteric polymer that protected MER against gastric pH (pH 1.9) and enabled site-specific delivery in the small intestine (pH 6.8). Cellular uptake results in RAW 264.7 macrophage, Caco-2, and LS174T cells confirming the efficient cellular uptake of nanoparticles in all three cell lines. More importantly, the bidirectional transport (absorptive and secretory) of MER across Caco-2 monolayer was significantly improved for both MSN-based formulations, particularly MSNs coated with a polymer (Eud-MER-MCM-NH2) where permeability was significantly enhanced (∼2.4-fold) for absorptive transport and significantly reduced (∼1.8-fold) for secretory transport. Finally, in vitro antibacterial activity [minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC)] and time-kill assay against S. aureus and P. aeruginosa showed that drug-loaded nanoparticles were able to retain antibacterial activity comparable to that of free MER in a solution at equivalent dose. Thus, Eudragit-coated silica nanoparticles could offer a promising and novel solution for oral delivery of Meropenem and other such drugs.

PLGA encapsulated γ-cyclodextrin-meropenem inclusion complex formulation for oral delivery.

Meropenem (MER) is one of the last resort antibiotics used to treat resistant bacterial infections. However, the clinical effectiveness of MER is hindered due to chemical instability in aqueous solution and gastric pH, and short plasma half-life. Herein, a novel multi-material delivery system based on γ-cyclodextrin (γ-CD) and poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) is demonstrated to overcome these challenges. MER showed a saturated solubility of 14 mg/100 mL in liquid CO2 and later it was loaded into γ-CD to form the inclusion complex using the liquid CO2 method. The γ-CD and MER inclusion complex (MER-γ-CD) was encapsulated into PLGA by the well-established double emulsion solvent evaporation method. The formation of the inclusion complex was confirmed using FTIR, XRD, DSC, SEM, and 1H NMR and docking study. Further, MER-γ-CD loaded PLGA nanoparticles (MER-γ-CD NPs) were characterized by SEM, DLS, and FTIR. The drug loading and entrapment efficiency for MER-γ-CD were 21.9 and 92. 2% w/w, respectively. However, drug loading and entrapment efficiency of MER-γ-CD NPs was significantly lower at up to 3.6 and 42.1% w/w, respectively. In vitro release study showed that 23.6 and 27.4% of active (non-degraded drug) and total drug (both degraded and non-degraded drug) were released from MER-γ-CD NPs in 8 h, respectively. The apparent permeability coefficient (Papp) (A to B) for MER, MER-γ-CD, and MER-γ-CD NPs were 2.63 × 10-6 cm/s, 2.81 × 10-6 cm/s, and 2.92 × 10-6 cm/s, respectively. For secretory transport, the Papp (B to A) were 1.47 × 10-6 cm/s, 1.53 × 10-6 cm/s, and 1.58 × 10-6 cm/s for MER, MER-γ-CD and MER-γ-CD NPs, respectively. Finally, the MER-γ-CD inclusion complex and MER-γ-CD NPs retained MER's antibacterial activities against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Overall, this work demonstrates the significance of MER-γ-CD NPs to protect MER from gastric pH with controlled drug release, while retaining MER's antibacterial activity.

Oral meropenem for superbugs: challenges and opportunities.

An increase in the number of multidrug-resistant microbial strains is the biggest threat to global health and is projected to cause >10 million deaths by 2055. The carbapenem family of antibacterial drugs are an important class of last-resort treatment of infections caused by drug-resistant bacteria and are only available as an injectable formulation. Given their instability within the gut and poor permeability across the gut wall, oral carbapenem formulations show poor bioavailability. Meropenem (MER), a carbapenem antibiotic, has broad-spectrum antibacterial activity, but suffers from the above-mentioned issues. In this review, we discuss strategies for improving the oral bioavailability of MER, such as inhibiting tubular secretion, prodrug formulations, and use of nanomedicine. We also highlight challenges and emerging approaches for the development of oral MER.

Pharmacodynamics of once- versus twice-daily dosing of nebulized amikacin in an in vitro Hollow-Fiber Infection Model against 3 clinical isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

This study aims to compare the bacterial killing of once- versus twice-daily nebulized amikacin against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and to determine the optimal duration of therapy. Three clinical P. aeruginosa isolates (amikacin MICs 2, 8, and 64 mg/L) were exposed to simulated epithelial lining fluid exposures of nebulized amikacin with dosing regimens of 400 mg and 800 mg once- or twice-daily up to 7-days using the in vitro hollow-fiber infection model. Quantitative cultures were performed. Simulated amikacin dosing regimens of 400 mg twice-daily and 800 mg once-daily achieved ≥2-log reduction in the bacterial burden within the first 24-hours of therapy for all isolates tested. No dosing regimen suppressed the emergence of amikacin resistance. No difference in bacterial killing or regrowth was observed between 3- and 7-days of amikacin. Amikacin doses of 800 mg once-daily for up to 3-days may be considered for future clinical trials.

Population Pharmacokinetics of Levetiracetam in Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury and Subarachnoid Hemorrhage Exhibiting Augmented Renal Clearance.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Patients with severe trauma exhibit augmented renal clearance, which can alter the dosing requirement of renally eliminated drugs. This study aimed to develop a population pharmacokinetic model for levetiracetam in patients with severe traumatic brain injury and aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage, and use it to describe optimal dosing regimens. METHODS: This was a prospective open-label observational study. Critically ill adult patients with severe traumatic brain injury or aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage without renal dysfunction and receiving levetiracetam were eligible. Serial levetiracetam plasma concentrations were analyzed to develop a population pharmacokinetic model and perform dosing simulations. RESULTS: A two-compartment model best described the concentration-time data from 30 patients. The mean ± standard deviation parameter estimates were bioavailability (F) of 0.8 ± 0.2, absorption rate constant of 2.4 ± 2 h-1, clearance 2.5 ± 1.1 L/h, central volume of distribution 8.9 ± 3.0 L/h, and transfer rate constraints of 1.8 ± 1.1 h-1 from central to peripheral compartments and 0.7 ± 0.3 h-1 from peripheral to central compartments. For the simulated intermittent dosing regimens, on average, the median trough concentration reduced by 50% for every 40-mL/min/1.73 m2 increase in urinary creatinine clearance. Simulated doses of at least 6 g/day were required for some levels of augmented renal clearance. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with severe traumatic brain injury and aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage with augmented renal clearance are at risk of not achieving target levetiracetam plasma concentrations. We suggest dose titration guided by measured creatinine clearance, and/or, therapeutic drug monitoring if available, to minimize the risk of seizures.

Challenges in Antifungal Therapy in Diabetes Mellitus.

Diabetic patients have an increased propensity to Candida sp. infections due to disease-related immunosuppression and various other physiological alterations. The incidence of candidiasis has increased in number over the years and is linked to significant morbidity and mortality in critically ill and immunosuppressed patients. Treatment of infection in diabetic patients may be complicated due to the various disease-related changes to the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics (PK/PD) of a drug, including antifungal agents. Application of PK/PD principles may be a sensible option to optimise antifungal dosing regimens in this group of patients. Further studies on PK/PD of antifungals in patients with diabetes mellitus are needed as current data is limited or unavailable.