Decision making at a subcellular level determines the outcome of bacteriophage infection.

When the process of cell-fate determination is examined at single-cell resolution, it is often observed that individual cells undergo different fates even when subject to identical conditions. This "noisy" phenotype is usually attributed to the inherent stochasticity of chemical reactions in the cell. Here we demonstrate how the observed single-cell heterogeneity can be explained by a cascade of decisions occurring at the subcellular level. We follow the postinfection decision in bacteriophage lambda at single-virus resolution, and show that a choice between lysis and lysogeny is first made at the level of the individual virus. The decisions by all viruses infecting a single cell are then integrated in a precise (noise-free) way, such that only a unanimous vote by all viruses leads to the establishment of lysogeny. By detecting and integrating over the subcellular "hidden variables," we are able to predict the level of noise measured at the single-cell level.

Evidence that a catalytic glutamate and an 'Arginine Toggle' act in concert to mediate ATP hydrolysis and mechanochemical coupling in a viral DNA packaging motor.

ASCE ATPases include ring-translocases such as cellular helicases and viral DNA packaging motors (terminases). These motors have conserved Walker A and B motifs that bind Mg2+-ATP and a catalytic carboxylate that activates water for hydrolysis. Here we demonstrate that Glu179 serves as the catalytic carboxylate in bacteriophage λ terminase and probe its mechanistic role. All changes of Glu179 are lethal: non-conservative changes abrogate ATP hydrolysis and DNA translocation, while the conservative E179D change attenuates ATP hydrolysis and alters single molecule translocation dynamics, consistent with a slowed chemical hydrolysis step. Molecular dynamics simulations of several homologous terminases suggest a novel mechanism, supported by experiments, wherein the conserved Walker A arginine 'toggles' between interacting with a glutamate residue in the 'lid' subdomain and the catalytic glutamate upon ATP binding; this switch helps mediate a transition from an 'open' state to a 'closed' state that tightly binds nucleotide and DNA, and also positions the catalytic glutamate next to the γ-phosphate to align the hydrolysis transition state. Concomitant reorientation of the lid subdomain may mediate mechanochemical coupling of ATP hydrolysis and DNA translocation. Given the strong conservation of these structural elements in terminase enzymes, this mechanism may be universal for viral packaging motors.

The Q motif of a viral packaging motor governs its force generation and communicates ATP recognition to DNA interaction.

A key step in the assembly of many viruses is the packaging of DNA into preformed procapsids by an ATP-powered molecular motor. To shed light on the motor mechanism we used single-molecule optical tweezers measurements to study the effect of mutations in the large terminase subunit in bacteriophage lambda on packaging motor dynamics. A mutation, K84A, in the putative ATPase domain driving DNA translocation was found to decrease motor velocity by approximately 40% but did not change the force dependence or decrease processivity substantially. These findings support the hypothesis that a deviant "Walker A-like" phosphate-binding motif lies adjacent to residue 84. Another mutation, Y46F, was also found to decrease motor velocity by approximately 40% but also increase slipping during DNA translocation by >10-fold. These findings support the hypothesis that viral DNA packaging motors contain an adenine-binding motif that regulates ATP hydrolysis and substrate affinity analogous to the "Q motif" recently identified in DEAD-box RNA helicases. We also find impaired force generation for the Y46F mutant, which shows that the Q motif plays an important role in determining the power and efficiency of the packaging motor.

Type 3 fimbriae and biofilm formation are regulated by the transcriptional regulators MrkHI in Klebsiella pneumoniae.

Klebsiella pneumoniae is an opportunistic pathogen which frequently causes hospital-acquired urinary and respiratory tract infections. K. pneumoniae may establish these infections in vivo following adherence, using the type 3 fimbriae, to indwelling devices coated with extracellular matrix components. Using a colony immunoblot screen, we identified transposon insertion mutants which were deficient for type 3 fimbrial surface production. One of these mutants possessed a transposon insertion within a gene, designated mrkI, encoding a putative transcriptional regulator. A site-directed mutant of this gene was constructed and shown to be deficient for fimbrial surface expression under aerobic conditions. MrkI mutants have a significantly decreased ability to form biofilms on both abiotic and extracellular matrix-coated surfaces. This gene was found to be cotranscribed with a gene predicted to encode a PilZ domain-containing protein, designated MrkH. This protein was found to bind cyclic-di-GMP (c-di-GMP) and regulate type 3 fimbrial expression.

Mutations altering a structurally conserved loop-helix-loop region of a viral packaging motor change DNA translocation velocity and processivity.

Many double-stranded DNA viruses employ ATP-driven motors to translocate their genomes into small, preformed viral capsids against large forces resisting confinement. Here, we show via direct single-molecule measurements that a mutation T194M downstream of the Walker B motif in the phage lambda gpA packaging motor causes an 8-fold reduction in translocation velocity without substantially changing processivity or force dependence, whereas the mutation G212S in the putative C (coupling) motif causes a 3-fold reduction in velocity and a 6-fold reduction in processivity. Meanwhile a T194M pseudorevertant (T194V) showed a near restoration of the wild-type dynamics. Structural comparisons and modeling show that these mutations are in a loop-helix-loop region that positions the key residues of the catalytic motifs, Walker B and C, in the ATPase center and is structurally homologous with analogous regions in chromosome transporters and SF2 RNA helicases. Together with recently published studies of SpoIIIE chromosome transporter and Ded1 RNA helicase mutants, these findings suggest the presence of a structurally conserved region that may be a part of the mechanism that determines motor velocity and processivity in several different types of nucleic acid translocases.

Functional Dissection of a Viral DNA Packaging Machine's Walker B Motif.

Many viruses employ ATP-powered motors for genome packaging. We combined genetic, biochemical, and single-molecule techniques to confirm the predicted Walker-B ATP-binding motif in the phage λ motor and to investigate the roles of the conserved residues. Most changes of the conserved hydrophobic residues resulted in >107-fold decrease in phage yield, but we identified nine mutants with partial activity. Several were cold-sensitive, suggesting that mobility of the residues is important. Single-molecule measurements showed that the partially active A175L exhibits a small reduction in motor velocity and increase in slipping, consistent with a slowed ATP binding transition, whereas G176S exhibits decreased slipping, consistent with an accelerated transition. All changes to the conserved D178, predicted to coordinate Mg2+•ATP, were lethal except conservative change D178E. Biochemical interrogation of the inactive D178N protein found no folding or assembly defects and near-normal endonuclease activity, but a ∼200-fold reduction in steady-state ATPase activity, a lag in the single-turnover ATPase time course, and no DNA packaging, consistent with a critical role in ATP-coupled DNA translocation. Molecular dynamics simulations of related enzymes suggest that the aspartate plays an important role in enhancing the catalytic activity of the motor by bridging the Walker motifs and precisely contributing its charged group to help polarize the bound nucleotide. Supporting this prediction, single-molecule measurements revealed that change D178E reduces motor velocity without increasing slipping, consistent with a slowed hydrolysis step. Our studies thus illuminate the mechanistic roles of Walker-B residues in ATP binding, hydrolysis, and DNA translocation by this powerful motor.

Natural history of a viral cohesive end site: cosN of the λ-like phages.

The base pairs of cosN, the site where the 12 base-long cohesive ends are generated in λ-like phages, show partial-two fold rotational symmetry. In a bioinformatic survey, we found that the cosN changes in 12 natural cosN variants are restricted to bp 6-to-12 of the cohesive end sequence. In contrast, bp 1-5 of the cohesive end sequence are strictly conserved (13/13), as are the two bp flanking the left nicking site (bp -2 and -1). The bp flanking the right nick site (bp 13 and 14) are conserved in 12 of 13 variants. Five cosN variants differing by as many as five bp were used to replace lambda's cosN. No significant effects of the cosN changes on λ's virus yield were found. In sum, bp -2 to 5 are critical cosN function, and bp 6-12 of the cohesive end sequence are not critical for terminase recognition or virus fitness.

DNA Topology and the Initiation of Virus DNA Packaging.

During progeny assembly, viruses selectively package virion genomes from a nucleic acid pool that includes host nucleic acids. For large dsDNA viruses, including tailed bacteriophages and herpesviruses, immature viral DNA is recognized and translocated into a preformed icosahedral shell, the prohead. Recognition involves specific interactions between the viral packaging enzyme, terminase, and viral DNA recognition sites. Generally, viral DNA is recognized by terminase's small subunit (TerS). The large terminase subunit (TerL) contains translocation ATPase and endonuclease domains. In phage lambda, TerS binds a sequence repeated three times in cosB, the recognition site. TerS binding to cosB positions TerL to cut the concatemeric DNA at the adjacent nicking site, cosN. TerL introduces staggered nicks in cosN, generating twelve bp cohesive ends. Terminase separates the cohesive ends and remains bound to the cosB-containing end, in a nucleoprotein structure called Complex I. Complex I docks on the prohead's portal vertex and translocation ensues. DNA topology plays a role in the TerSλ-cosBλ interaction. Here we show that a site, I2, located between cosN and cosB, is critically important for an early DNA packaging step. I2 contains a complex static bend. I2 mutations block DNA packaging. I2 mutant DNA is cut by terminase at cosN in vitro, but in vivo, no cos cleavage is detected, nor is there evidence for Complex I. Models for what packaging step might be blocked by I2 mutations are presented.

Walker-A Motif Acts to Coordinate ATP Hydrolysis with Motor Output in Viral DNA Packaging.

During the assembly of many viruses, a powerful ATP-driven motor translocates DNA into a preformed procapsid. A Walker-A "P-loop" motif is proposed to coordinate ATP binding and hydrolysis with DNA translocation. We use genetic, biochemical, and biophysical techniques to survey the roles of P-loop residues in bacteriophage lambda motor function. We identify 55 point mutations that reduce virus yield to below detectable levels in a highly sensitive genetic complementation assay and 33 that cause varying reductions in yield. Most changes in the predicted conserved residues K76, R79, G81, and S83 produce no detectable yield. Biochemical analyses show that R79A and S83A mutant proteins fold, assemble, and display genome maturation activity similar to wild-type (WT) but exhibit little ATPase or DNA packaging activity. Kinetic DNA cleavage and ATPase measurements implicate R79 in motor ring assembly on DNA, supporting recent structural models that locate the P-loop at the interface between motor subunits. Single-molecule measurements detect no translocation for K76A and K76R, while G81A and S83A exhibit strong impairments, consistent with their predicted roles in ATP binding. We identify eight residue changes spanning A78-K84 that yield impaired translocation phenotypes and show that Walker-A residues play important roles in determining motor velocity, pausing, and processivity. The efficiency of initiation of packaging correlates strongly with motor velocity. Frequent pausing and slipping caused by changes A78V and R79K suggest that these residues are important for ATP alignment and coupling of ATP binding to DNA gripping. Our findings support recent structural models implicating the P-loop arginine in ATP hydrolysis and mechanochemical coupling.

DNA Packaging Specificity of Bacteriophage N15 with an Excursion into the Genetics of a Cohesive End Mismatch.

During DNA replication by the λ-like bacteriophages, immature concatemeric DNA is produced by rolling circle replication. The concatemers are processed into mature chromosomes with cohesive ends, and packaged into prohead shells, during virion assembly. Cohesive ends are generated by the viral enzyme terminase, which introduces staggered nicks at cos, an approx. 200 bp-long sequence containing subsites cosQ, cosN and cosB. Interactions of cos subsites of immature concatemeric DNA with terminase orchestrate DNA processing and packaging. To initiate DNA packaging, terminase interacts with cosB and nicks cosN. The cohesive ends of N15 DNA differ from those of λ at 2/12 positions. Genetic experiments show that phages with chromosomes containing mismatched cohesive ends are functional. In at least some infections, the cohesive end mismatch persists through cyclization and replication, so that progeny phages of both allelic types are produced in the infected cell. N15 possesses an asymmetric packaging specificity: N15 DNA is not packaged by phages λ or 21, but surprisingly, N15-specific terminase packages λ DNA. Implications for genetic interactions among λ-like bacteriophages are discussed.

Genetics of critical contacts and clashes in the DNA packaging specificities of bacteriophages λ and 21.

The cos sites in λ and 21 chromosomes contain binding sites that recruit terminase to initiate DNA packaging. The small subunits of terminase, gpNu1 (λ) and gp1 (21), have winged helix-turn-helix DNA binding domains, where the recognition helixes differ in four of nine residues. To initiate packaging, the small subunit binds three R sequences in the cosB subsite. λ and 21 cannot package each other׳s DNA, due to recognition helix and R sequence differences. In λ and 21 cosBs, two bp, tri1 and tri2, are conserved in the R sequences yet differ between the phages; they are proposed to play a role in phage-specific packaging by λ and 21. Genetic experiments done with mixed and matched terminase and cosB alleles show packaging specificity depends on favorable contacts and clashes. These interactions indicate that the recognition helixes orient with residues 20 and 24 proximal to tri2 and tri1, respectively.

Novel DNA packaging recognition in the unusual bacteriophage N15.

Phage lambda's cosB packaging recognition site is tripartite, consisting of 3 TerS binding sites, called R sequences. TerS binding to the critical R3 site positions the TerL endonuclease for nicking cosN to generate cohesive ends. The N15 cos (cos(N15)) is closely related to cos(λ), but whereas the cosB(N15) subsite has R3, it lacks the R2 and R1 sites and the IHF binding site of cosB(λ). A bioinformatic study of N15-like phages indicates that cosB(N15) also has an accessory, remote rR2 site, which is proposed to increase packaging efficiency, like R2 and R1 of lambda. N15 plus five prophages all have the rR2 sequence, which is located in the TerS-encoding 1 gene, approximately 200 bp distal to R3. An additional set of four highly related prophages, exemplified by Monarch, has R3 sequence, but also has R2 and R1 sequences characteristic of cosB-λ. The DNA binding domain of TerS-N15 is a dimer.

DNA packaging by lambda-like bacteriophages: mutations broadening the packaging specificity of terminase, the lambda-packaging enzyme.

The DNA-packaging specificities of phages lambda and 21 depend on the specific DNA interactions of the small terminase subunits, which have support helix-turn-recognition helix-wing DNA-binding motifs. lambda-Terminase with the recognition helix of 21 preferentially packages 21 DNA. This chimeric terminase's ability to package lambdaDNA is reduced approximately 20-fold. Phage lambda with the chimeric terminase is unable to form plaques, but pseudorevertants are readily obtained. Some pseudorevertants have trans-acting suppressors that change codons of the recognition helix. Some of these codons appear to remove an unfavorable base-pair contact; others appear to create a novel nonspecific DNA contact. Helper-packaging experiments show that these mutant terminases have lost the ability to discriminate between lambda and 21 during DNA packaging. Two cis-acting suppressors affect cosB, the small subunit's DNA-binding site. Each changes a cosB(lambda)-specific base pair to a cosB(21)-specific base pair. These cosB suppressors cause enhanced DNA packaging by 21-specific terminase and reduce packaging by lambda-terminase. Both the cognate support helix and turn are required for strong packaging discrimination. The wing does not contribute to cosB specificity. Evolution of packaging specificity is discussed, including a model in which lambda- and 21-packaging specificities diverged from a common ancestor phage with broad packaging specificity.

Initial cos cleavage of bacteriophage lambda concatemers requires proheads and gpFI in vivo.

The development of bacteriophage lambda and double-stranded DNA viruses in general involves the convergence of two separate pathways: DNA replication and head assembly. Clearly, packaging will proceed only if an empty capsid shell, the prohead, is present to receive the DNA, but genetic evidence suggests that proheads play another role in the packaging process. For example, lambda phages with an amber mutation in any head gene or in FI, the gene encoding the accessory packaging protein gpFI, are able to produce normal amounts of DNA concatemers but they are not cut, or matured, into unit length chromosomes for packaging. Similar observations have been made for herpes simplex 1 virus. In the case of lambda, a negative model proposes that in the amber phages, unassembled capsid components are inhibitory to maturation, and a positive model suggests that assembled proheads are required for cutting. We tested the negative model by using a deletion mutant devoid of all prohead genes and FI in an in vivo cos cleavage assay; in this deleted phage, the cohesive ends were not cut. When lambda proheads and gpFI were provided in vivo via a second prophage, cutting was restored, and gpFI was required, results that support the positive model. Phage 21 is a sister phage of lambda, and although its capsid proteins share approximately 60% residue identity with lambda's, phage 21 proheads did not restore cutting, even when provided with the accessory protein gpFI. Models for the role of proheads and gpFI in cos cutting are discussed.

Insights into specific DNA recognition during the assembly of a viral genome packaging machine.

Terminase enzymes mediate genome "packaging" during the reproduction of DNA viruses. In lambda, the gpNu1 subunit guides site-specific assembly of terminase onto DNA. The structure of the dimeric DNA binding domain of gpNu1 was solved using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Its fold contains a unique winged helix-turn-helix (wHTH) motif within a novel scaffold. Surprisingly, a predicted P loop ATP binding motif is in fact the wing of the DNA binding motif. Structural and genetic analysis has identified determinants of DNA recognition specificity within the wHTH motif and the DNA recognition sequence. The structure reveals an unexpected DNA binding mode and provides a mechanistic basis for the concerted action of gpNu1 and Escherichia coli integration host factor during assembly of the packaging machinery.