Body Dysmorphic Disorder in the Perspective of the Alternative DSM-5 Model for Personality Disorder: A Study on Italian Community-Dwelling Women.

To evaluate the relationships between body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) and Alternative DSM-5 Model for Personality Disorder (AMPD) criterion A and dysfunctional personality trait (i.e., criterion B) measures, 420 Italian community-dwelling women were administered three measures of BDD (i.e., the Body Dysmorphic Disorder Questionnaire, the Body Dysmorphic Disorder-Dimensional Scale, and the Appearance Anxiety Inventory), as well as the Level of Personality Functioning Scale-Brief Form (LPFS-BF) and the Personality Inventory for DSM-5-Short Form (PID-5-SF). The three BDD measures showed substantial convergent validity correlations and could be reliably cumulated to obtain the BDD Cumulative Index (BDDCI). Several significant, nonnegligible correlations were observed between the BDDCI as well as the LPFS-BF scale scores and PID-5-SF personality trait scale scores. Relative importance weight analysis results showed that LPFS-BF scale scores and PID-5-SF trait scale scores were substantial predictors of the BDDCI scores (R = 0.42, f = 0.72). In particular, AMPD criterion A impairment in self-functioning and AMPD criterion B depressivity, anhedonia, perseveration, separation insecurity, and cognitive and perceptual dysregulation were core components of the dysfunctional personality profile associated with BDD.

International Assessment of DSM-5 and ICD-11 Personality Disorder Traits: Toward a Common Nosology in DSM-5.1.

INTRODUCTION: The DSM-5 Alternative Model of Personality Disorders (AMPD) and the ICD-11 classification of personality disorders (PD) are largely commensurate and, when combined, they delineate 6 trait domains: negative affectivity, detachment, antagonism/dissociality, disinhibition, anankastia, and psychoticism. OBJECTIVE: The present study evaluated the international validity of a brief 36-item patient-report measure that portrays all 6 domains simultaneously including 18 primary subfacets. METHODS: We developed and employed a modified version of the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 - Brief Form Plus (PID5BF+). A total of 16,327 individuals were included, 2,347 of whom were patients. The expected 6-factor structure of facets was initially investigated in samples from Denmark (n = 584), Germany (n = 1,271), and the USA (n = 605) and subsequently replicated in both patient- and community samples from Italy, France, Switzerland, Belgium, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Poland, Czech Republic, the USA, and Brazil. Associations with interview-rated DSM-5 PD categories were also investigated. RESULTS: Findings generally supported the empirical soundness and international robustness of the 6 domains including meaningful associations with familiar interview-rated PD types. CONCLUSIONS: The modified PID5BF+ may be employed internationally by clinicians and researchers for brief and reliable assessment of the 6 combined DSM-5 and ICD-11 domains, including 18 primary subfacets. This 6-domain framework may inform a future nosology for DSM-5.1 that is more reasonably aligned with the authoritative ICD-11 codes than the current DSM-5 AMPD model. The 36-item modified PID5BF+ scoring key is provided in online supplementary Appendix A see www.karger.com/doi/10.1159/000507589 (for all online suppl. material).

Dysfunctional personality features, non-scientifically supported causal beliefs, and emotional problems during the first month of the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy.

The present study aimed at assessing the impact of demographic characteristics, maladaptive personality traits and causal beliefs about COVID-19 on perceived emotional problems in a sample of Italian community-dwelling adults (N = 1043) in the first month of the social distancing period due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy. Hierarchical logistic regression analysis results showed that dysfunctional personality domains and non-scientifically supported causal beliefs explained all the variance that was originally explained by demographic variables (i.e., age and gender). In particular, negative affectivity and detachment represented relevant risk factors for reduced emotional well-being in our sample. A significant positive association was observed also between emotional problems and supernatural causal beliefs on the COVID-19 infection. Our data supported the importance of considering the impact of quarantine measures on psychological well-being, while suggesting possible risk factors related to individual differences in personality and causal beliefs.

Interview-based ratings of DSM-IV Axis II/DSM-5 Section II Personality Disorder symptoms in consecutively admitted insomnia patients: A comparison study with consecutively admitted psychotherapy patients matched on age and gender.

BACKGROUND: Selected personality features may represent important predisposing as well as perpetuating factors for insomnia, and previous studies stressed the importance to assess personality disorders in insomnia patients. METHODS: In order to evaluate the relationships between DSM-IV Axis II/DSM-5 Section II Personality Disorders (PDs) and insomnia, a sample of 171 consecutively admitted insomnia patients and a sample of 171 psychotherapy patients, matched on age and gender were administered the Italian translation of the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis II Personality Disorders, Version 2.0 (SCID-II). Among insomnia patients, 52.0% (n = 89) received at least one DSM-IV Axis II/DSM-5 Section II PD diagnosis according to SCID-II assessment. RESULTS: Any PD base rate estimate in our insomnia patient sample was significantly and markedly higher than the median and mean base rate estimates for any PD in the general population. Within-group analyses showed that Narcissistic, Not otherwise specified PD, Histrionic PD, and Borderline PD represented the most frequently diagnosed-both dimensionally and categorically-DSM-IV Axis II/DSM-5 Section II PD features in our insomnia patient sample. When continuously-scored PDs were considered, insomnia patients showed a significantly lower number of Paranoid and Borderline PD features than psychotherapy patients; however, the corresponding effect size estimates suggested that these differences were modest. None of the categorically-scored PDs significantly differentiated insomnia patients from psychotherapy patients. CONCLUSIONS: As a whole, our findings seemed to suggest that personality dysfunction may play a role in insomnia, while stressing the need for a dimensional approach to the assessment of maladaptive personality traits even in insomnia patients.

Improving Family Functioning to (Hopefully) Improve Treatment Efficacy of Borderline Personality Disorder: An Opportunity Not to Dismiss.

People having intimate relationships with persons suffering from borderline personality disorder (BPD) - for instance, members of their family - are likely to be involved in stormy, roller coaster relationships. Thus, they may feel overwhelmed by extreme, unpredictable feelings and situations, even when they do not suffer from any mental disorder or have no problems with mentalization. As a consequence of living with a BPD relative, family members often experience an emotional and financial burden, and may blame themselves for their relative's illness or for not being able to do more to help. This can lead to emotional pain including anxiety, guilt, anger, frustration, despair, and hopelessness. Available evidence suggests a possible usefulness of family interventions for relatives of BPD persons. Starting from these background considerations, a qualitative review of the published literature on family interventions for relatives of BPD persons was carried out. The main findings concerning specific contents and available effectiveness data of psychoeducational family interventions, family skills training, and mentalization-based family programs are reported, in the perspective of 3 family intervention scenarios: (a) taking care of the family of origin of the BPD person; (b) taking care of the new family that the BPD person has started; (c) helping the BPD person to be an effective parent.

Assessing Dimensions of Pathological Narcissism: Psychometric Properties of the Short Form of the Five-Factor Narcissism Inventory in a Sample of Italian University Students.

To evaluate the psychometric properties of the Italian translation of the Five-Factor Narcissism Inventory-Short Form (FFNI-SF), 1,063 Italian university students were administered the scale, along with the Pathological Narcissism Inventory (PNI) and the Measure of Disordered Personality Functioning (MDPF). In general, the FFNI-SF scales showed good internal consistency (median α = .76; median interitem r = .44) and structural analyses suggested a 3-component model of FFNI-SF scales that was similar to that reported by Sherman et al. (2015). FFNI-SF second-order scales yielded meaningful convergent and discriminant correlations with PNI second-order grandiose and vulnerable dimensions. Finally, FFNI-SF second-order scales correlated in expected ways with 2 dimensions of personality dysfunction.

On the relationships between DSM-5 dysfunctional personality traits and social cognition deficits: A study in a sample of consecutively admitted Italian psychotherapy patients.

This study aims at testing the hypothesis that the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders fifth edition (DSM-5) alternative model of personality disorder (AMPD) traits may be significantly associated with deficits on 2 different social cognition tasks, namely, the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test and the Movie for the Assessment of Social Cognition, in a sample of consecutively admitted inpatients and outpatients. The sample was composed of 181 consecutively admitted participants (57.5% women; mean age = 38.58 years). Correlation coefficients and partial correlation coefficients were computed in order to assess the associations among social cognition tasks, DSM-5 AMPD traits, and dimensionally assessed DSM-5 Section II personality disorders. Specific maladaptive traits listed in the DSM-5 AMPD were significantly associated with Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test scores and Movie for the Assessment of Social Cognition scores, even when the effect of selected DSM-5 Section II personality disorders was controlled for. Our results support the relevance of studying social cognitive functioning in subjects suffering from personality disorders.

Reliability and clinical usefulness of the personality inventory for DSM-5 in clinically referred adolescents: A preliminary report in a sample of Italian inpatients.

BACKGROUND: The DSM-5 Alternative Model of Personality Disorders (AMPD) provides the opportunity to integrate the needed developmental perspective in the assessment of personality pathology. Based on this model, Krueger and colleagues (2012) developed the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5), which operationalizes the proposed DSM-5 traits. METHODS: Eighty-five consecutively admitted Italian adolescent inpatients were administered the Italian translation of the PID-5, in order to obtain preliminary data on PID-5 reliability and clinical usefulness in clinically referred adolescents. RESULTS: With the possible exception of the PID-5 Suspiciousness scale, all other PID-5 scales evidenced adequate internal consistency reliability (i.e., Cronbach's α values of at least .70, most being greater than .80). Our data seemed to yield at least partial support for the construct validity of the PID-5 scales also in clinical adolescents, at least in terms of patterns of associations with dimensionally assessed DSM-5 Section II PDs that were also included in the DSM-5 AMPD (excluding Antisocial PD because of the participants' minor age). Finally, our data suggested that the clinical usefulness of the PID-5 in adolescent inpatients may extend beyond PDs to profiling adolescents at risk for life-threatening suicide attempts. In particular, PID-5 Depressivity, Anhedonia, and Submissiveness trait scales were significantly associated with adolescents' history of life-threatening suicide attempts, even after controlling for a number of other variables, including mood disorder diagnosis. DISCUSSION: As a whole, our study may provide interesting, albeit preliminary data as to the clinical usefulness of PID-5 in the assessment of adolescent inpatients.

Borderline Personality Disorder and Narcissistic Personality Disorder Diagnoses From the Perspective of the DSM-5 Personality Traits: A Study on Italian Clinical Participants.

To evaluate the associations between Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition (DSM-5) Alternative Model of Personality Disorder traits and domains and categorically diagnosed narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) and borderline personality disorder (BPD), respectively, 238 inpatient and outpatient participants who were consecutively admitted to the Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy Unit of San Raffaele Hospital in Milan, Italy, were administered the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5) and the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis II Personality Disorders (SCID-II). Based on SCID-II, the participants were assigned to the following groups: a) NPD (n = 49), b) BPD (n = 32), c) any other PD (n = 91), and d) no PD (n = 63). Emotional lability, separation insecurity, depressivity, impulsivity, risk taking, and hostility were significantly associated with BPD diagnosis. Attention seeking significantly discriminated participants who received an SCID-II categorical NPD diagnosis. Separation insecurity, impulsivity, distractibility, and perceptual dysregulation were the DSM-5 traits that significantly discriminated BPD participants. Domain-level analyses confirmed and extended trait-level findings.

The relationship between childhood history of ADHD symptoms and DSM-IV borderline personality disorder features among personality disordered outpatients: the moderating role of gender and the mediating roles of emotion dysregulation and impulsivity.

A number of studies have reported data suggestive of a significant association between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and borderline personality disorder (BPD). However, the nature of this relation is not fully understood. This study aimed to evaluate if the relation between retrospectively assessed ADHD symptoms and adult BPD features is moderated by participants' gender and mediated by emotion dysregulation and impulsivity. Two hundred seventeen outpatients meeting DSM-IV criteria for at least one personality disorder (PD) consecutively admitted to the Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy Unit of the Scientific Institute H San Raffaele of Milan, Italy, were administered Italian versions of the following instruments: Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis II Personality Disorders (SCID-II), Wender Utah Rating Scale (WURS), Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS), and the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-11 (BIS-11). Moderation analyses revealed a significant association between ADHD and BPD symptoms among only female (vs. male) outpatients. Furthermore, in the female subsample, mediation analyses revealed that both impulsivity and emotion dysregulation fully mediated the relationship between retrospectively assessed ADHD symptoms and current BPD features.

The DSM-5 alternative model of personality disorders from the perspective of adult attachment: a study in community-dwelling adults.

To assess how the maladaptive personality domains and facets that were included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) Alternative Model of Personality Disorders relate to adult attachment styles, 480 Italian nonclinical adults were administered the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5) and the Attachment Style Questionnaire (ASQ). To evaluate the uniqueness of the associations between the PID-5 scales and the ASQ scales, the participants were also administered the Big Five Inventory (BFI). Multiple regression analyses showed that the ASQ scales significantly predicted both PID-5 domain scales and BFI scales; however, the relationships were different both qualitatively and quantitatively. With the exception of the PID-5 risk taking scale (adjusted R(2) = 0.02), all other PID-5 trait scales were significantly predicted by the ASQ scales, median adjusted R(2) value = 0.25, all ps < 0.001. Our findings suggest that the maladaptive personality domains and traits listed in the DSM-5 Alternative Model of Personality Disorders show meaningful associations with adult attachment styles.

Predicting nonsuicidal self-injury and suicidal risk: A comparison between the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition Section II personality disorder and alternative model of personality disorders dimensions.

The clinical relevance of nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) has received growing recognition, and NSSI represents a relevant risk factor for suicide. The present study aimed at running a head-to-head comparison between interview scores of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) Section II personality disorders (PDs) criteria, and DSM-5 Alternative Model of Personality Disorder (AMPD) Criterion A and Criterion B measures in providing significant and relevant information for understanding NSSI and suicidal ideation and behavior among psychotherapy participants. To this aim, a clinical sample of 103 adult participants was administered the Clinician-Administered Nonsuicidal Self-Injury Disorder Index (CANDI), the Columbia Suicide Severity Rating Scale (C-SSRS), as well as the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5 Personality Disorders, the Structured Clinical Interview for the DSM-5 Alternative Model for Personality Disorders Module I, and a self-report measure of dysfunctional personality traits (i.e., the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 [PID-5]). Logistic ordinal regression dominance analysis results showed that, when compared to the 10 DSM-5 Section II PD symptom counts, the DSM-5 Section III PD measure scores provided the same amount of information in the CANDI Global Severity Index scores (Nagelkerke pseudo-R² value = .41), and a markedly larger information quantity in the case of the C-SSRS Suicidal Ideation (+35.1%), and Suicidal Behavior Index (+35.9%) levels. As a whole, our data suggested the clinical usefulness of the DSM-5 AMPD in understanding NSSI and suicidal ideation and behavior. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

The joint hierarchical structure of psychopathology and dysfunctional personality domain indicators among community-dwelling adults.

To examine the hierarchical structure of psychopathology and dysfunctional personality domains, 2416 Italian community-dwelling adult volunteers were administered a set of psychometrically sound psychopathology measures and the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 Brief Form+ (PID-5-BF+). Parallel analysis, minimum average partial, and very simple structure results suggested that 1-6 principal components (PCs) should be retained. Goldberg's bass-ackwards model of the joint psychopathology measure and PID-5-BF+ ipsatized domain scale correlation matrix evidenced a hierarchical structure that was consistent with the working model proposed by the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) consortium. Hierarchical agglomerative cluster analysis around latent variables of the psychopathology indicators and PID-5-BF+ domain scales recovered four latent dimensions, which were akin to the corresponding bass-ackwards components and nicely reproduced the HiTOP Internalizing, Externalizing, Thought Disorder, and Eating Pathology dimensions.

The neuropsychological correlates of (sluggish) cognitive tempo scales in school-aged children.

Sluggish Cognitive Tempo (SCT) is a neuropsychiatric construct including lethargy, behavioral sluggishness, and confusion. A growing number of studies in the literature suggest that this set of symptoms refers to neuropsychological constructs such as sustained attention. However, studies focusing on SCT and its neuropsychological correlates in developmental age are scarce. The present study aims to fill this gap. The Child and Adolescent Behavior Inventory (CABI - Teacher and Parent versions, also including the school functioning scale, and the Child Concentration Inventory (CCI-2) were administered to a sample of 128 Italian primary-school children (57.6% F, mean age 8.81, SD 1.07); the neuropsychological constructs involved in the study were sustained attention and reaction times to two computerized tasks. Bivariate non-parametric correlation analyses yielded significant negative associations between teacher-referred SCT and measures of sustained attention (e.g., the Attentional Network Test and the Hearts and Flowers task) as well as CABI-T school-functioning scale; a small-to-moderate positive correlation was found between CABI-T SCT scores and mean reaction times, as a measure of the slowness of behavioral responses on the Attentional Network Test: this result would appear to represent a fine operationalization of the SCT-characteristic of behavioral sluggishness. Implications of these results for operationalizing the SCT construct in developmental age are discussed.

Are problem buying and problem gambling addictive, impulsive, or compulsive in nature? A network analysis and latent dimension analysis study in Italian community-dwelling adults.

Prominent scholars suggested that the impulsive-obsessive compulsive continuum may represent a framework to understand both substance and behavioral addictions. However, the characterization of pathological buying (PB) and problem gambling (PG) within the compulsive-impulsive spectrum has not been extensively investigated. To explore the relationships among PB, PG, alcohol and substance abuse, DSM-5 obsessive-compulsive and related disorders, and impulsive dimensions, a sample of 1,005 Italian community-dwelling adult participants (55.5% female), was administered self-reported measures of PB, PG, and other theoretically-relevant constructs. We expected to observe a multidimensional structure in our data; moreover, DSM-5 obsessive compulsive and related disorders were hypothesized to be accounted for by a common dimension. Three dimensions were identified and replicated across two different, non-redundant methods (i.e., exploratory graph analysis and exploratory factor analysis), namely, substance use and gambling, obsessive and compulsive phenomena, and impulsivity dimensions. Specifically, PG seemed to represent a behavioral variant of addiction vulnerability, PB seemed more akin to obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders, and disinhibition dimension represented the common core of negative urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, sensation seeking (SS), and positive urgency. Our findings may be helpful in improving our knowledge on the similarities and differences between PB and PG.

Reliability, Factor Validity, and Neuropsychological Correlates of the Child Concentration Inventory-2 in a Community Sample of Italian Adolescents.

Sluggish Cognitive Tempo (SCT) has been less frequently studied in adolescents compared with school-aged youth, few studies have examined youth self-report of SCT, and no study has examined SCT in Italy. The present study examined the reliability and validity of the Child Concentration Inventory-Version 2 (CCI-2), a youth self-report measure of SCT, in 452 Italian adolescent high school students (37.8% female; mean age = 15.92 years). Adolescents were administered Italian translations of the CCI-2 and the attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Self-Report Scale (ASRS). School performance variables (i.e., teacher-rated grades and teachers' disciplinary ratings) were also collected. A random subsample (n = 88) of participants was also administered the Mackworth Clock Test, a short version of the Attention Network Test, and the Stop-Signal Task. In our study, all CCI-2 items showed adequate convergent-discriminant validity, and the CCI-2 scale score showed adequate internal consistency reliability. Confirmatory factor analysis results suggested the adequacy of a one-factor model of the CCI-2 items, which showed to be invariant across sex. Confirmatory factor analyses supported the dissociability of SCT from ADHD-Inattention and ADHD-Impulsivity. SCT was significantly and negatively associated with adolescents' average school grades, whereas ADHD was also significantly and negatively associated with adolescents' disciplinary ratings. In the random subsample, the CCI-2 total score was positively, significantly, and uniquely associated with overall reaction time on the Attention Network Task, but not other neurocognitive variables. This study provides further support for the reliability and validity of self-reported SCT in adolescence.

COVID-19 pandemic preventive behaviors and causal beliefs among Italian community dwelling adults.

In an online sample of 1054 Italian community-dwelling adults, we assessed the relationships between the frequency of implementation of practices intended to prevent COVID-19 infection, degree of agreement with theories about the origin of the infections, and the frequency of use of different sources of information concerning the COVID-19 pandemic. The results showed that participants' COVID-19-related preventive behaviors and causal beliefs were significantly associated with selected demographic variables and frequency of use of specific sources of information (e.g. scientific journals vs social media).

Post-traumatic disorder symptom severity in the perspective of hierarchical taxonomy of psychopathology spectra and dysfunctional personality domains among trauma-exposed community-dwelling women.

To assess the relationships between post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) components, Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) spectra, and dysfunctional personality domains, the Post-Traumatic Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5); the Personality Inventory for DSM-5-Brief Form+ (PID-5BF+); and self-report measures of HiTOP Internalizing, Thought Disorders, and Externalizing spectra were administered to 387 trauma-exposed Italian community-dwelling women. Before structural equation modeling (SEM), measurement components of models were assessed using confirmatory factor analyses. Both taxometric and Gaussian mixture analysis results were consistent with a dimensional representation of the PCL-5 scores. SEM results showed that PTSD components, at least as they were operationalized by the PCL-5 scores, were positively, significantly, and substantially associated with HiTOP Internalizing and Thought Disorder Spectra latent dimensions, as well as with Negative Affectivity, Detachment, and Psychoticism personality domains.

The assessment of personality pathology in adolescence from the perspective of the Alternative DSM-5 Model for Personality Disorder.

Applying personality disorder diagnosis to adolescents is still a controversial topic. Notwithstanding there is now general agreement that personality disorders have its roots in childhood and adolescence, skepticism with regard to personality disorder diagnoses in adolescence seem to continue among clinicians. The aim of the present review is to summarize the available emerging literature on the assessment of personality pathology in adolescence according to the Alternative DSM-5 Model for Personality Disorders (AMPD). Specifically, we will provide an overview of the available instruments for assessing AMPD Criterion A and Criterion B, with a particular focus on their measurement properties in adolescence. Finally, suggestions for future researches are provided.

Reliability and validity of the Diagnostic Scales of the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality-2 (SNAP-2) in Italian community-dwelling adults and psychiatric patients.

To evaluate the psychometric properties of the Italian translation of the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality-2 (SNAP-2) diagnostic scales, 837 Italian community-dwelling adults and 429 consecutively admitted Italian psychiatric adults were administered the SNAP-2. The 12 SNAP-2 diagnostic scales yielded reliable scores in both community (median ω value = .90) and psychiatric (median ω value = .92) samples. The 6-month temporal stability was adequate for all SNAP-2 diagnostic scales (median test-retest r-value = .84) in a subsample of the community-dwelling adults (n = 97). When we examined the correlations between the SNAP-2 diagnostic scales and the Five-Factor Model Rating Form trait scales among the community-dwelling adults, the double-entry intraclass correlation values (median ICCDE = .94) indicated a marked similarity between our correlation profiles and the correlation profiles that were reported in Samuel and Widiger (2008) meta-analysis. In our psychiatric-adult sample, the SNAP-2 diagnostic scales showed adequate convergent-validity coefficients (median r-value = .61) with criterion measures of DSM-IV axis II/DSM-5 Section II personality disorders (PDs). Finally, relative-weight analysis results showed that selected Personality Inventory for DSM-5 trait-scale scores explained a substantial amount of variance in SNAP-2 antisocial, avoidant, borderline, narcissistic, obsessive-compulsive, and schizotypal PD scale scores (median R 2 value = .55). As a whole, our data suggest that the Italian SNAP-2 diagnostic scales have adequate reliability and construct validity in the Italian culture. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).