Self-Reported Efficacy of Treatments in Cluster Headache: a Systematic Review of Survey Studies.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The use and efficacy of various substances in the treatment of CH have been studied in several retrospective surveys. The aim of the study is to systematically review published survey studies to evaluate the reported efficacies of both established and unconventional substances in abortive and prophylactic treatment of both episodic and chronic CH, specifically assessing the consistency of the results. RECENT FINDINGS: No systematic review have been conducted of these studies previously. A systematic literature search with a set of search terms was conducted on PubMed. Retrospective surveys that quantified the self-reported efficacy of two or more CH treatments, published in English during 2000-2020, were included. Several key characteristics and results of the studies were extracted. A total of 994 articles were identified of which 9 were found to be eligible based on the selection criteria. In total, 5419 respondents were included. Oxygen and subcutaneous triptan injections were most reported as effective abortive treatments, while psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide were most commonly reported as effective prophylactic treatments. The reported efficacy of most substances was consistent across different studies, and there were marked differences in the reported efficacies of different substances. The reported order of efficacy is generally in agreement with clinical studies. The findings suggest that retrospective surveys can be used to obtain supporting information on the effects of various substances used in the treatment of CH and to form hypotheses about novel treatment methods. The consistently reported efficacy of psilocybin and LSD in prophylactic treatment indicates need for clinical studies.

Exacerbation of acute kidney injury by bone marrow stromal cells from rats with persistent renin-angiotensin system activation.

Hypertension and persistent activation of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) are predisposing factors for the development of acute kidney injury (AKI). Although bone-marrow-derived stromal cells (BMSCs) have shown therapeutic promise in treatment of AKI, the impact of pathological RAS on BMSC functionality has remained unresolved. RAS and its local components in the bone marrow are involved in several key steps of cell maturation processes. This may also render the BMSC population vulnerable to alterations even in the early phases of RAS pathology. We isolated transgenic BMSCs (TG-BMSCs) from young end-organ-disease-free rats with increased RAS activation [human angiotensinogen/renin double transgenic rats (dTGRs)] that eventually develop hypertension and die of end-organ damage and kidney failure at 8 weeks of age. Control cells (SD-BMSCs) were isolated from wild-type Sprague-Dawley rats. Cell phenotype, mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and respiration were assessed, and gene expression profiling was carried out using microarrays. Cells' therapeutic efficacy was evaluated in a rat model of acute ischaemia/reperfusion-induced AKI. Serum urea and creatinine were measured at 24 h and 48 h. Acute tubular damage was scored and immunohistochemistry was used for evaluation for markers of inflammation [monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP-1), ED-1], and kidney injury [kidney injury molecule-1 (KIM-1), neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL)]. TG-BMSCs showed distinct mitochondrial morphology, decreased cell respiration and increased production of ROS. Gene expression profiling revealed a pronounced pro-inflammatory phenotype. In contrast with the therapeutic effect of SD-BMSCs, administration of TG-BMSCs in the AKI model resulted in exacerbation of kidney injury and high mortality. Our results demonstrate that early persistent RAS activation can dramatically compromise therapeutic potential of BMSCs by causing a shift into a pro-inflammatory phenotype with mitochondrial dysfunction.

Transcriptomic Analysis of Human Primary Bronchial Epithelial Cells after Chloropicrin Treatment.

Chloropicrin is a vaporizing toxic irritant that poses a risk to human health if inhaled, but the mechanism of its toxicity in the respiratory tract is poorly understood. Here, we exposed human primary bronchial epithelial cells (HBEpC) to two concentrations of chloropicrin (10-50 µM) for 6 or 48 h and used genomic microarray, flow cytometry, and TEM-analysis to monitor cellular responses to the exposures. The overall number of differentially expressed transcripts with a fold-change > ± 2 compared to controls increased with longer exposure times. The initial response was activation of genes with a higher number of up- (512 by 10 µM and 408 by 40 µM chloropicrin) rather than down-regulated transcripts (40 by 10 µM and 215 by 40 µM chloropicrin) at 6 h seen with both exposure concentrations. The number of down-regulated transcripts, however, increased with the exposure time. The differentially regulated transcripts were further examined for enriched Gene Ontology Terms (GO) and KEGG-pathways. According to this analysis, the "ribosome" and "oxidative phosphorylation" were the KEGG-pathways predominantly affected by the exposure. The predominantly affected (GO) biological processes were "protein metabolic process" including "translation," "cellular protein complex assembly," and "response to unfolded protein." Furthermore, the top pathways, "NRF2-activated oxidative stress" and "Ah-receptor signaling," were enriched in our data sets by IPA-analysis. Real time qPCR assay of six selected genes agreed with the microarray analysis. In addition, chloropicrin exposure increased the numbers of late S and/or G2/M-phase cells as analyzed by flow cytometry and induced autophagy as revealed by electron microscopy. The targets identified are critical for vital cellular functions reflecting acute toxic responses and are potential causes for the reduced viability of epithelial cells after chloropicrin exposure.

Decreased [3H]naloxone Binding in the Dentate Gyrus of Cloninger Type 1 Anxiety-Prone Alcoholics: A Postmortem Whole-Hemisphere Autoradiography Study.

BACKGROUND: The opioid system of the central nervous system plays an essential role in the regulation of the rewarding effects of alcohol. Alcohol affects mu-opioid receptor (MOR) function. Enhanced MOR function inhibits the GABAergic inhibition of the nucleus accumbens (Nac), which leads to a release of dopamine in the Nac. Of the few pharmaceutical treatments for alcoholism, the MOR antagonists naltrexone and nalmefene benefit most a subset of alcoholics who are characterized with early onset and impulsivity. Our aim was to investigate possible differences in the binding density of [³H]naloxone, a MOR competitive antagonist, between Cloninger type 1 anxiety-prone and harm-avoidant alcoholics, Cloninger type 2 impulsive and antisocial alcoholics, and healthy controls in brain areas that are essential for reward, learning, impulse-control, and mood regulation. METHODS: We used postmortem whole-hemisphere autoradiography with [³H]naloxone, as a binding ligand. A subsequent autoradiography was performed with [³H]DAMGO, a selective MOR agonist. RESULTS: Cloninger type 1 alcoholics displayed decreased [³H]naloxone binding density in all studied brain areas. This trend reached statistical significance in the dentate gyrus, where type 1 alcoholics' [³H]naloxone binding density was significantly decreased (p = 0.019) when compared to controls. A similar trend of decreased binding in type 1 alcoholics was observed in the [³H]DAMGO study. CONCLUSIONS: Our finding suggest that Cloninger type 1 anxiety-prone alcoholics may have an altered [³H]naloxone binding in brain areas related to reward, impulse-control, mood, and learning. The finding lends support to the idea of Cloninger type 1 anxiety-prone alcoholics responding weaker to the opioidergic pharmaceuticals of the treatment of alcoholism than Cloninger type 2 impulsive alcoholics.

Lower [3H]Citalopram binding in brain areas related to social cognition in alcoholics.

AIMS: In the present study, putative alterations in the serotonin transporter density were evaluated in anterior and posterior insula, posterior cingulate cortex, dorsolateral and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, parahippocampal gyrus and dorsal raphe nucleus in Cloninger type 1 (n = 9) and type 2 (n = 8) alcoholics and non-alcoholic controls (n = 10). METHODS: Human whole-hemisphere autoradiography was used to measure [3H]citalopram binding to serotonin transporters in eight brain areas in all post-mortem brains. RESULTS: Significant differences were observed in the mean [3H]citalopram binding between the study groups, with antisocial type 2 alcoholics showing the lowest binding. Differences between the study groups were prominent in the posterior insula and posterior cingulate cortex, where both alcoholic groups had low [3H]citalopram binding, and in the parahippocampal gyrus where only antisocial type 2 alcoholics had low [3H]citalopram binding when compared with non-alcoholic controls. CONCLUSION: Although these data are preliminary, and from relatively small diagnostic groups, these results show that alcoholics may have lower serotonergic tone in the brain, thus decreasing social cognition and increasing alcohol-cue reactivity.

Increased metabotropic glutamate 2/3 receptor binding in the perigenual anterior cingulate cortex of Cloninger type 2 alcoholics: a whole-hemisphere autoradiography study.

AIMS: Metabotropic glutamate receptors 2 and 3 (mGluR2/3) contribute to control the level of glutamate in the synapse. In rodents, mGluR2/3 agonists attenuate the reinstatement of alcohol-seeking behavior. Linking possible alterations of the mGluR2/3 system to the etiology and type of alcoholism could provide valuable information for the development of novel mGluR2/3 function modulating therapies in addiction treatment. To date, mGluR2/3 binding density has not been studied in human alcoholics. We aimed to investigate the possible differences in mGluR2/3 binding between Cloninger type 1 anxiety-prone and type 2 impulsive alcoholics and controls. METHODS: We performed a post-mortem whole-hemisphere autoradiography to study the mGluR2/3 binding density of 9 type 1 alcoholics, 8 type 2 alcoholics and 10 controls. [(3)H]LY341495, a potent group II metabotropic glutamate receptor antagonist, was used as the radio-ligand with l-glutamate as a displacer. RESULTS: [(3)H]LY341495 binding density was statistically significantly increased (P = 0.046) in the perigenual anterior cingulate cortex (pACC) of type 2 alcoholics when compared with controls. In other brain areas, no significant difference between the groups was found. CONCLUSION: This preliminary study suggests that impulsive type 2 alcoholics might have alterations in the mGluR2/3 function in the pACC, a brain area presumed to be involved in the control of drug-seeking behaviors and self-control.

Plant sterol feeding induces tumor formation and alters sterol metabolism in the intestine of Apc(Min) mice.

Dietary plant sterols reduce the absorption of cholesterol and therefore increase intraluminal cholesterol concentration. We examined how plant sterol esters from functional foods affect intestinal tumorigenesis in tumor-prone adenomatous polyposis coli (Apc)(Min) mice. Feeding plant sterols at 0.8% increased the number of intestinal adenomas, and the effect was significant in female mice. The concentration of mucosal free sitosterol increased by eightfold in plant sterol males and by threefold in plant sterol females when compared with respective controls. The concentration of mucosal free cholesterol was significantly lower in plant sterol males than in control males, and the decrease in free cholesterol was accompanied with a significant increase in nuclear sterol regulatory element binding protein-2. No difference was found in the levels of ß-catenin, cyclin D1, epidermal growth factor receptor, extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2, or caveolin-1 in either gender after plant sterol feeding. Among all measured parameters, higher levels of estrogen receptor ß and free cholesterol in the mucosa were among the strongest predictors of increased intestinal tumorigenesis. In addition, gene expression data showed significant enrichment of up-regulated genes of cell cycle control and cholesterol biosynthesis in plant sterol females. The results indicate that high intake of plant sterols accelerates intestinal tumorigenesis in female Apc (Min)mice; however, the mechanism behind the adverse effect remains to be discovered.

Effects of nitrous oxide and ketamine on electrophysiological and molecular responses in the prefrontal cortex of mice: A comparative study.

Nitrous oxide (N2O; laughing gas) has recently reported to produce rapid antidepressant effects, but little is known about the underlying mechanisms. We performed transcriptomics, in situ hybridization, and electrophysiological studies to examine the potential shared signatures induced by 1 h inhalation of 50% N2O and a single subanesthetic dose of ketamine (10 mg/kg, i.p.) in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) in adult mice. Both treatments similarly affected the transcription of several negative regulators of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), namely, dual specificity phosphatases (DUSPs). The effects were primarily located in the pyramidal cells. Notably, the overall effects of N2O on mRNA expression were much more prominent and widespread compared to ketamine. Ketamine caused an elevation of the spiking frequency of putative pyramidal neurons and increased gamma activity (30-100 Hz) of cortical local field potentials. However, N2O produced no such effects. Spiking amplitudes and spike-to-local field potential phase locking of putative pyramidal neurons and interneurons in this brain area showed no uniform changes across treatments. Our findings suggest that N2O and subanesthetic-dose ketamine target MAPK pathway in the mPFC but produce varying acute electrophysiological responses.

Comparative steroid profiling of newborn hair and umbilical cord serum highlights the role of fetal adrenals, placenta, and pregnancy outcomes in fetal steroid metabolism.

Previous steroid hormone studies concerning pregnancy and newborns have mainly focused on glucocorticoids; wider steroid profiles have been less commonly investigated. Here, we performed a comparative analysis of 17 steroids from newborn hair and umbilical cord serum at the time of delivery. The study participants (n = 42, 50% girls) were a part of the Kuopio Birth Cohort and represent usual Finnish pregnancies. The hair and cord serum samples were analyzed with liquid chromatography high resolution mass spectrometry and triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry, respectively. We detected high individual variations in steroid hormone concentrations in both sample matrices. The concentrations of cortisol (F), corticosterone (B), estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), 11ß-hydroxyandostenedione (11bOHA4), 5α-androstanedione (DHA4), and 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) correlated positively between cord serum and newborn hair samples. In addition, F and 11bOHA4 concentrations correlated positively with each other in both newborn hair and cord serum samples. The cortisone-to-cortisol ratio (E/F) was significantly higher in cord serum than in newborn hair samples reflecting high placental 11ßHSD2 enzyme activity. Only minor sex differences in steroid concentrations were observed; higher testosterone (T) and 11-deoxycortisol (S) with lower 11bOHA4 in male cord serum, and higher DHEA, androstenedione (A4) and 11bOHA4 in female newborn hair samples. Parity and delivery mode were the most significant pregnancy- and birth-related parameters associating with F and some other adrenocortical steroid concentrations. This study provides novel information about intrauterine steroid metabolism in late pregnancy and typical concentration ranges for several newborn hair steroids, including also 11-oxygenated androgens.

Whole-hemisphere autoradiography of 5-HT1B receptor densities in postmortem alcoholic brains.

The 5-HT(1B) receptor has been associated with alcohol dependence, impulsive or alcohol-related aggressive behavior, and anxiety. The aim of this study was to determine whether or not the 5-HT(1B) receptor density differs in brain samples from anxiety-prone Cloninger type 1 alcoholics and socially hostile, predominantly male, type 2 alcoholics, and controls. Whole-hemispheric 5-HT(1B) receptor density was measured in eight regions of postmortem brains from 17 alcoholics and 10 nonalcoholic controls by autoradiography with tritiated GR-125743 and unlabeled ketanserin to prevent 5-HT(1D) binding. The 5-HT(1B) receptor density was not altered significantly in any of the studied regions. However, some correlations were observed in types 1 and 2 alcoholics only. The 5-HT(1B) receptor density decreased with age in type 1 alcoholics only. There was a significant positive correlation between 5-HT(1B) receptor and serotonin transporter densities in the head of caudate of type 1 alcoholics only. There was a significant positive correlation between 5-HT(1B) receptor density and dopaminergic terminal density, as estimated by vesicular monoamine transporter 2 measurement in the nucleus accumbens of type 2 alcoholics only. There were no significant correlations between 5-HT(1B) receptor and dopamine transporter or dopamine D2/D3 receptor densities in any of the subject groups. In conclusion, these results do not indicate primary changes in 5-HT(1B) receptor densities among these alcoholics, although the data must be considered as preliminary.

Aflatoxin B1 targeted gene expression profiles in human placental primary trophoblast cells.

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. A high exposure (40 nM and 1 µM AFB1 for 72 h) was used to study mechanistic effects of AFB1 on gene expression patterns in human primary trophoblast cells, isolated from full term placentae after delivery. Gene expression profiling was conducted, and Ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA) software was used to identify AFB1-regulated gene networks and regulatory pathways. In response to 40 nM AFB1, only 7 genes were differentially expressed whereas 1 µM AFB1 significantly dysregulated 170 genes (124 down- and 46 upregulated, ±1.5-fold, p < 0.05) in AFB1-exposed trophoblasts when compared to controls. The top downregulated genes were involved in endocrine signalling and biosynthesis of hormones, and lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. The top upregulated genes were involved in protein synthesis and regulation of cell cycle. The main canonical pathways identified by IPA were associated with endocrine signalling including growth hormone signalling, and corticotropin releasing hormone signalling. Furthermore, genes involved in aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR)-mediated estrogen receptor signalling were dysregulated in response to AFB1. Our findings indicate that a high concentration 72 h AFB1 exposure caused relatively moderate number of changes on transcript level to human placental primary trophoblast cells. However, these preliminary results need to be confirmed with human-relevant concentrations of AFB1.

The prefrontal cortex shows widespread decrease in H3 histamine receptor binding densities in rats with genetic generalized epilepsies.

Distributions of brain H3 histamine receptors in regions of the prefrontal cortex were studied by assessing regional binding densities for [3 H](R)α-methylhistamine in coronal brain slices of normal rats and rats with genetically determined absence and/or audiogenic epilepsies. The three groups of epileptic rats displayed widespread significant decreases in H3 histamine receptor binding densities. A 20-25% decline was seen in the rostral aspects of the lateral prefrontal cortex, namely the granular, dysgranular, and dorsal agranular insular regions. The reduction was not specific for the epilepsy types. The same was observed in the rostral part of the primary cingulate cortex and the secondary midcingulate cortex. On borders of this core effect, several seizure-type specific declines were seen. Namely, the infralimbic, prelimbic and posterior agranular insular cortices demonstrated absence-epilepsy related reductions in the H3 histamine receptor binding densities. A decrease related to audiogenic seizures was noted in the rostral part of the piriform cortex. The pattern of widespread and seizure-type unspecific decline in H3 histamine receptor binding densities points to a common part of brain loops underlying generalized convulsive and non-convulsive types of epilepsy. It also might hint at putative seizure-related changes in the release of histamine from specific fibers innervating the prefrontal area.

TAFFEL: Independent Enrichment Analysis of gene sets.

BACKGROUND: A major challenge in genomic research is identifying significant biological processes and generating new hypotheses from large gene sets. Gene sets often consist of multiple separate biological pathways, controlled by distinct regulatory mechanisms. Many of these pathways and the associated regulatory mechanisms might be obscured by a large number of other significant processes and thus not identified as significant by standard gene set enrichment analysis tools. RESULTS: We present a novel method called Independent Enrichment Analysis (IEA) and software TAFFEL that eases the task by clustering genes to subgroups using Gene Ontology categories and transcription regulators. IEA indicates transcriptional regulators putatively controlling biological functions in studied condition. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrate that the developed method and TAFFEL tool give new insight to the analysis of differentially expressed genes and can generate novel hypotheses. Our comparison to other popular methods showed that the IEA method implemented in TAFFEL can find important biological phenomena, which are not reported by other methods.

Prolyl endopeptidase is involved in cellular signalling in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells.

Prolyl endopeptidase (PREP), probably acting through the inositol cycle, has been implicated in memory and learning. However, the physiological role of PREP is unknown. It has been shown that PREP expression, regulated in cerebellar granule cells, has probably a role in cell proliferation and differentiation. Here, we report the levels and subcellular distribution of PREP in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells in proliferating conditions and under differentiation induced by retinoic acid (RA). We analysed the levels of cell signalling intermediates, growth behavior and gene expression, and differentiation morphology changes, upon PREP inhibition. After induction of differentiation, PREP activity was found decreased in the nucleus but increased to high levels in the cytoplasm, due in part to increased PREP transcription. The levels of inositol (1,4,5)-trisphosphate revealed no correlation with PREP activity, but phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 were decreased by PREP inhibition during early stages of differentiation. Morphological evaluation indicated that PREP inhibition retarded the onset of differentiation. PREP activity regulated gene expression of protein synthesis machinery, intracellular transport and kinase complexes. We conclude that PREP is a regulatory target and a regulatory element in cell signalling. This is the first report of a direct influence of a cell signalling molecule, RA, on PREP expression.

Trans fat diet causes decreased brood size and shortened lifespan in Caenorhabditis elegans delta-6-desaturase mutant fat-3.

Trans-fatty acids (TFAs) enter the diet through industrial processes and can cause adverse human health effects. The present study was aimed to examine the effects of dietary cis- and trans-fatty acids on the model organism Caenorhabditis elegans. Cis- or trans-18:1n9 triglycerides (25 µM) caused no apparent changes in the numbers of viable progeny of wild-type N2 animals. However, in fat-3 mutants lacking delta-6-desaturase, the trans-isomer caused modest decreases in lifespan and progeny after three generations. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) profiles were significantly altered in fat-3 mutants compared to wild type but were not altered after exposure to dietary cis- or trans-18:1n9. Genome-wide expression analysis of fat-3 mutants revealed hundreds of changes. Several genes involved in fat metabolism (acs-2, fat-7, mdt-15) were significantly increased by cis- or trans-18:1n9 without discrimination between isomers. These results provide support for the hypothesis that dietary trans fats are detrimental to development and aging.

Genes regulated in MPTP-treated macaques and human Parkinson's disease suggest a common signature in prefrontal cortex.

The presymptomatic phase of Parkinson's disease (PD) is now recognized as a prodromal phase, with compensatory mechanism masking its progression and non-motor early manifestations, such as depression, cognitive disturbances and apathy. Those mechanisms were thought to be strictly dopamine-mediated until recent advances have shed light upon involvement of putative outside-basal ganglia, i.e. cortical, structures. We took advantage of our progressive 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-treated macaque model to monitor whole genome transcriptional changes in several brain areas. Our data reveals that transcriptomic activity changes take place from early stages, suggesting very early compensatory mechanisms or pathological activity outside the basal ganglia, including the PFC. Specific transcriptomic changes occurring in the PFC of fully parkinsonian MPTP-treated macaques have been identified. Interestingly, a large part of these transcriptomic changes were also observed in human post-mortem samples of patients with neurodegenerative diseases analysed by quantitative PCR. These results suggest that the PFC is able to detect the progression of dopamine denervation even at very early time points. There are therefore mechanisms, within the PFC, leading to compensatory alterations and/or participating to pathophysiology of prodromal PD manifestations.

5-HT(1A) receptors in the frontal cortical brain areas in Cloninger type 1 and 2 alcoholics measured by whole-hemisphere autoradiography.

AIMS: The Cloninger type 1 alcoholics are prone to anxiety, and in many cases patients have begun to use alcohol in order to relieve their anxiety. We have previously reported a decrease of the serotonin transporter density in the perigenual anterior cingulate cortex (pACC) in type 1 alcoholics. The 5-HT(1A) receptors are the binding sites for anxiolytic drug buspirone. We aimed to investigate the alteration in the density of 5-HT(1A) receptors, that may also alter the effect of serotonin in the pACC in alcoholics. METHODS: The density of the serotonin receptor 5-HT(1A) among Cloninger type 1 and 2 alcoholics (nine and eight subjects, respectively) and 10 control subjects were determined by postmortem whole-hemisphere autoradiography with WAY-100635. RESULTS: Substantially sparser 5-HT(1A) (by -31%, P = 0.010) density was observed in the pACC of alcoholic subjects in relation to non-alcoholic comparison subjects. In a secondary analysis for the difference between the alcoholic subtypes and controls, the 5-HT(1A) density was decreased significantly by -32% (P = 0.015) in the upper level of pACC in type 1 alcoholics. CONCLUSIONS: The detected decrease of 5-HT(1A) receptor density on the pACC suggests further that the serotoninergic system is defected in the so-called affect region, especially in the type 1 alcoholics.

Increased [³H]quisqualic acid binding density in the dorsal striatum and anterior insula of alcoholics: A post-mortem whole-hemisphere autoradiography study.

The function of group I metabotropic glutamate receptors mGluR1 and mGluR5 is involved in the hyperglutamatergic state caused by chronic alcohol. Preclinical studies suggest that group I mGluR modulation could serve as a novel treatment of alcoholism. Considering the wide role of glutamatergic neurochemistry in addiction, group I mGluR binding was studied in brain areas involved in decision-making, learning and memory. Post-mortem whole hemisphere autoradiography was used to study the binding density of [³H]quisqualic acid, a potent group I mGluR agonist, in 9 Cloninger type 1 alcoholics, 8 Cloninger type 2 alcoholics and 10 controls. Binding was studied in the dorsal striatum, hippocampus and cortex. Alcoholics displayed a trend towards increased [³H]quisqualic acid binding in all brain areas. The most robust findings were in the putamen (p = 0.006) and anterior insula (p = 0.005), where both alcoholic subtypes displayed increased binding compared to the controls. These findings suggest altered group I mGluR function in alcoholic subjects in the dorsal striatum, which is involved in habitual learning, and in the anterior insula, which has a pivotal role in the perception of bodily sensations. Increased [³H]quisqualic acid binding might suggest a beneficial impact of mGluR1/5 modulators in the treatment of alcoholism.

Sex-specific transcriptional and proteomic signatures in schizophrenia.

It has remained unclear why schizophrenia typically manifests after adolescence and which neurobiological mechanisms are underlying the cascade leading to the actual onset of the illness. Here we show that the use of induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neurons of monozygotic twins from pairs discordant for schizophrenia enhances disease-specific signal by minimizing genetic heterogeneity. In proteomic and pathway analyses, clinical illness is associated especially with altered glycosaminoglycan, GABAergic synapse, sialylation, and purine metabolism pathways. Although only 12% of all 19,462 genes are expressed differentially between healthy males and females, up to 61% of the illness-related genes are sex specific. These results on sex-specific genes are replicated in another dataset. This implies that the pathophysiology differs between males and females, and may explain why symptoms appear after adolescence when the expression of many sex-specific genes change, and suggests the need for sex-specific treatments.

Functional characterization of endogenous siRNA target genes in Caenorhabditis elegans.

BACKGROUND: Small interfering RNA (siRNA) molecules mediate sequence specific silencing in RNA interference (RNAi), a gene regulatory phenomenon observed in almost all organisms. Large scale sequencing of small RNA libraries obtained from C. elegans has revealed that a broad spectrum of siRNAs is endogenously transcribed from genomic sequences. The biological role and molecular diversity of C. elegans endogenous siRNA (endo-siRNA) molecules, nonetheless, remain poorly understood. In order to gain insight into their biological function, we annotated two large libraries of endo-siRNA sequences, identified their cognate targets, and performed gene ontology analysis to identify enriched functional categories. RESULTS: Systematic trends in categorization of target genes according to the specific length of siRNA sequences were observed: 18- to 22-mer siRNAs were associated with genes required for embryonic development; 23-mers were associated uniquely with post-embryonic development; 24-26-mers were associated with phosphorus metabolism or protein modification. Moreover, we observe that some argonaute related genes associate with siRNAs with multiple reads. Sequence frequency graphs suggest that different lengths of siRNAs share similarities in overall sequence structure: the 5' end begins with G, while the body predominates with U and C. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that the lengths of endogenous siRNA molecules are consequential to their biological functions since the gene ontology categories for their cognate mRNA targets vary depending upon their lengths.