The histone H4 lysine 20 demethylase DPY-21 regulates the dynamics of condensin DC binding.

Condensin is a multi-subunit structural maintenance of chromosomes (SMC) complex that binds to and compacts chromosomes. Here, we addressed the regulation of condensin binding dynamics using Caenorhabditis elegans condensin DC, which represses X chromosomes in hermaphrodites for dosage compensation. We established fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) using the SMC4 homolog DPY-27 and showed that a well-characterized ATPase mutation abolishes DPY-27 binding to X chromosomes. Next, we performed FRAP in the background of several chromatin modifier mutants that cause varying degrees of X chromosome derepression. The greatest effect was in a null mutant of the H4K20me2 demethylase DPY-21, where the mobile fraction of condensin DC reduced from ∼30% to 10%. In contrast, a catalytic mutant of dpy-21 did not regulate condensin DC mobility. Hi-C sequencing data from the dpy-21 null mutant showed little change compared to wild-type data, uncoupling Hi-C-measured long-range DNA contacts from transcriptional repression of the X chromosomes. Taken together, our results indicate that DPY-21 has a non-catalytic role in regulating the dynamics of condensin DC binding, which is important for transcription repression.

Analysis of developmental gene expression using smFISH and in silico staging of C. elegans embryos.

Regulation of transcription during embryogenesis is key to development and differentiation. To study transcript expression throughout Caenorhabditis elegans embryogenesis at single-molecule resolution, we developed a high-throughput single-molecule fluorescence in situ hybridization (smFISH) method that relies on computational methods to developmentally stage embryos and quantify individual mRNA molecules in single embryos. We applied our system to sdc-2, a zygotically transcribed gene essential for hermaphrodite development and dosage compensation. We found that sdc-2 is rapidly activated during early embryogenesis by increasing both the number of mRNAs produced per transcription site and the frequency of sites engaged in transcription. Knockdown of sdc-2 and dpy-27, a subunit of the dosage compensation complex (DCC), increased the number of active transcription sites for the X chromosomal gene dpy-23 but not the autosomal gene mdh-1, suggesting that the DCC reduces the frequency of dpy-23 transcription. The temporal resolution from in silico staging of embryos showed that the deletion of a single DCC recruitment element near the dpy-23 gene causes higher dpy-23 mRNA expression after the start of dosage compensation, which could not be resolved using mRNAseq from mixed-stage embryos. In summary, we have established a computational approach to quantify temporal regulation of transcription throughout C. elegans embryogenesis and demonstrated its potential to provide new insights into developmental gene regulation.

Large-scale evaluation of the ability of RNA-binding proteins to activate exon inclusion.

RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) modulate alternative splicing outcomes to determine isoform expression and cellular survival. To identify RBPs that directly drive alternative exon inclusion, we developed tethered function luciferase-based splicing reporters that provide rapid, scalable and robust readouts of exon inclusion changes and used these to evaluate 718 human RBPs. We performed enhanced cross-linking immunoprecipitation, RNA sequencing and affinity purification-mass spectrometry to investigate a subset of candidates with no prior association with splicing. Integrative analysis of these assays indicates surprising roles for TRNAU1AP, SCAF8 and RTCA in the modulation of hundreds of endogenous splicing events. We also leveraged our tethering assays and top candidates to identify potent and compact exon inclusion activation domains for splicing modulation applications. Using these identified domains, we engineered programmable fusion proteins that outperform current artificial splicing factors at manipulating inclusion of reporter and endogenous exons. This tethering approach characterizes the ability of RBPs to induce exon inclusion and yields new molecular parts for programmable splicing control.

SEC-TMT facilitates quantitative differential analysis of protein interaction networks.

The majority of cellular proteins interact with at least one partner or assemble into molecular-complexes to exert their function. This network of protein-protein interactions (PPIs) and the composition of macromolecular machines differ between cell types and physiological conditions. Therefore, characterizing PPI networks and their dynamic changes is vital for discovering novel biological functions and underlying mechanisms of cellular processes. However, producing an in-depth, global snapshot of PPIs from a given specimen requires measuring tens to thousands of LC-MS/MS runs. Consequently, while recent works made seminal contributions by mapping PPIs at great depth, almost all focused on just 1-2 conditions, generating comprehensive but mostly static PPI networks. In this study we report the development of SEC-TMT, a method that enables identifying and measuring PPIs in a quantitative manner from only 4-8 LC-MS/MS runs per biological sample. This was accomplished by incorporating tandem mass tag (TMT) multiplexing with a size exclusion chromatography mass spectrometry (SEC-MS) work-flow. SEC-TMT reduces measurement time by an order of magnitude while maintaining resolution and coverage of thousands of cellular interactions, equivalent to the gold standard in the field. We show that SEC-TMT provides benefits for conducting differential analyses to measure changes in the PPI network between conditions. This development makes it feasible to study dynamic systems at scale and holds the potential to drive more rapid discoveries of PPI impact on cellular processes.

Large-scale map of RNA binding protein interactomes across the mRNA life-cycle.

Messenger RNAs (mRNAs) interact with RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) in diverse ribonucleoprotein complexes (RNPs) during distinct life-cycle stages for their processing and maturation. While substantial attention has focused on understanding RNA regulation by assigning proteins, particularly RBPs, to specific RNA substrates, there has been considerably less exploration leveraging protein-protein interaction (PPI) methodologies to identify and study the role of proteins in mRNA life-cycle stages. To address this gap, we generated an RNA-aware RBP-centric PPI map across the mRNA life-cycle by immunopurification (IP-MS) of ~100 endogenous RBPs across the life-cycle in the presence or absence of RNase, augmented by size exclusion chromatography (SEC-MS). Aside from confirming 8,700 known and discovering 20,359 novel interactions between 1125 proteins, we determined that 73% of our IP interactions are regulated by the presence of RNA. Our PPI data enables us to link proteins to life-cycle stage functions, highlighting that nearly half of the proteins participate in at least two distinct stages. We show that one of the most highly interconnected proteins, ERH, engages in multiple RNA processes, including via interactions with nuclear speckles and the mRNA export machinery. We also demonstrate that the spliceosomal protein SNRNP200 participates in distinct stress granule-associated RNPs and occupies different RNA target regions in the cytoplasm during stress. Our comprehensive RBP-focused PPI network is a novel resource for identifying multi-stage RBPs and exploring RBP complexes in RNA maturation.

Condensin DC loads and spreads from recruitment sites to create loop-anchored TADs in C. elegans.

Condensins are molecular motors that compact DNA via linear translocation. In Caenorhabditis elegans, the X-chromosome harbors a specialized condensin that participates in dosage compensation (DC). Condensin DC is recruited to and spreads from a small number of recruitment elements on the X-chromosome (rex) and is required for the formation of topologically associating domains (TADs). We take advantage of autosomes that are largely devoid of condensin DC and TADs to address how rex sites and condensin DC give rise to the formation of TADs. When an autosome and X-chromosome are physically fused, despite the spreading of condensin DC into the autosome, no TAD was created. Insertion of a strong rex on the X-chromosome results in the TAD boundary formation regardless of sequence orientation. When the same rex is inserted on an autosome, despite condensin DC recruitment, there was no spreading or features of a TAD. On the other hand, when a 'super rex' composed of six rex sites or three separate rex sites are inserted on an autosome, recruitment and spreading of condensin DC led to the formation of TADs. Therefore, recruitment to and spreading from rex sites are necessary and sufficient for recapitulating loop-anchored TADs observed on the X-chromosome. Together our data suggest a model in which rex sites are both loading sites and bidirectional barriers for condensin DC, a one-sided loop-extruder with movable inactive anchor.

Binding of an X-Specific Condensin Correlates with a Reduction in Active Histone Modifications at Gene Regulatory Elements.

Condensins are evolutionarily conserved protein complexes that are required for chromosome segregation during cell division and genome organization during interphase. In Caenorhabditis elegans, a specialized condensin, which forms the core of the dosage compensation complex (DCC), binds to and represses X chromosome transcription. Here, we analyzed DCC localization and the effect of DCC depletion on histone modifications, transcription factor binding, and gene expression using chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing and mRNA sequencing. Across the X, the DCC accumulates at accessible gene regulatory sites in active chromatin and not heterochromatin. The DCC is required for reducing the levels of activating histone modifications, including H3K4me3 and H3K27ac, but not repressive modification H3K9me3. In X-to-autosome fusion chromosomes, DCC spreading into the autosomal sequences locally reduces gene expression, thus establishing a direct link between DCC binding and repression. Together, our results indicate that DCC-mediated transcription repression is associated with a reduction in the activity of X chromosomal gene regulatory elements.

Cooperation between a hierarchical set of recruitment sites targets the X chromosome for dosage compensation.

In many organisms, it remains unclear how X chromosomes are specified for dosage compensation, since DNA sequence motifs shown to be important for dosage compensation complex (DCC) recruitment are themselves not X-specific. Here, we addressed this problem in C. elegans. We found that the DCC recruiter, SDC-2, is required to maintain open chromatin at a small number of primary DCC recruitment sites, whose sequence and genomic context are X-specific. Along the X, primary recruitment sites are interspersed with secondary sites, whose function is X-dependent. A secondary site can ectopically recruit the DCC when additional recruitment sites are inserted either in tandem or at a distance (>30 kb). Deletion of a recruitment site on the X results in reduced DCC binding across several megabases surrounded by topologically associating domain (TAD) boundaries. Our work elucidates that hierarchy and long-distance cooperativity between gene-regulatory elements target a single chromosome for regulation.