Biochemical synthesis of the medicinal sugar l-gulose using fungal alditol oxidase.

Some rare sugars can be potently medicinal, such as l-gulose. In this study, we present a novel alditol oxidase (fAldOx) from the soil fungus Penicillium sp. KU-1, and its application for the effective production of l-gulose. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of a successful direct conversion of d-sorbitol to l-gulose. We further purified it to homogeneity with a ∼108-fold purification and an overall yield of 3.26%, and also determined the effectors of fAldOx. The enzyme possessed broad substrate specificity for alditols such as erythritol (kcat/KM, 355 m-1 s-1), thus implying that the effective production of multiple rare sugars for medicinal applications may be possible.

Cloning and expression of d-glucoside 3-dehydrogenase from Rhizobium sp. S10 in Escherichia coli and its application for d-gulose production.

The novel isolated Rhizobium sp. S10 was identified as d-glucoside 3-dehydrogenase (G3DH) producing microbe. Therefore, the gene encoding for G3DH from Rhizobium sp. S10 was cloned and overexpressed in Escherichia coli strain JM109 as a soluble enzyme complex. The recombinant G3DH (rG3DH) was purified with relatively high specific activity of 38.54 U/mg compared to the previously characterized and cloned G3DHs. The purified rG3DH showed the highest activity at pH 7.0, 40 °C toward cellobiose. It can also oxidize a broad range of mono-disaccharides including saccharide derivatives. The glycosides oxidizing activity combined with chemical reaction, could produce d-gulose from lactitol via 3-ketolactitol.

X-ray-induced mutation of Bacillus sp. MR10 for manno-oligosaccharides production from copra meal.

The present study demonstrates the effectiveness of X-ray radiation in strain improvement for defective lipase production by Bacillus sp. MR10 for further application in the fermentative production of manno-oligosaccharides (MOS) from agricultural by-product, defatted copra meal (DCM). The mutants obtained were screened based on their defective lipase activity together with their ß-mannanase production performance. Among 10 selected mutants, the strain M7 was the highest promising mutant regarding the smallest lipase activity (0.05 U/ml) and the retained ß-mannanase activity similar to the parental strain (22 U/ml) were detected. The mutant M7 effectively hydrolyzed DCM to MOS with low-degree of polymerization (DP) oligomers including mannotriose (M3), mannotetraose (M4), and mannopentose (M5) as the main products. Although the pattern of DCM hydrolysis products of mutant M7 was distinctly different from wild type, the biochemical and catalytic properties of purified ß-mannanase of mutant were similar to those of wild type. Both purified ß-mannanases with apparent molecular mass of 38 kDa displayed optimal activity at pH 5-7 and 45-55°C. Co2+ and Hg2+ nearly completely inhibited activities of both enzymes, whereas Ba2+, Fe3+, and 2-mercaptoethanol obviously activated enzyme activities. Both enzymes showed high specificity for locust bean gum, konjac mannan, DCM, and guar gum. Thus, the mutant M7 has a potential for commercial production of high-quality MOS from low-cost DCM for further application in the feed industry.

Essentiality of tetramer formation of Cellulomonas parahominis L-ribose isomerase involved in novel L-ribose metabolic pathway.

L-Ribose isomerase from Cellulomonas parahominis MB426 (CpL-RI) can catalyze the isomerization between L-ribose and L-ribulose, which are non-abundant in nature and called rare sugars. CpL-RI has a broad substrate specificity and can catalyze the isomerization between D-lyxose and D-xylulose, D-talose and D-tagatose, L-allose and L-psicose, L-gulose and L-sorbose, and D-mannose and D-fructose. To elucidate the molecular basis underlying the substrate recognition mechanism of CpL-RI, the crystal structures of CpL-RI alone and in complexes with L-ribose, L-allose, and L-psicose were determined. The structure of CpL-RI was very similar to that of L-ribose isomerase from Acinetobacter sp. strain DL-28, previously determined by us. CpL-RI had a cupin-type ß-barrel structure, and the catalytic site was detected between two large ß-sheets with a bound metal ion. The bound substrates coordinated to the metal ion, and Glu113 and Glu204 were shown to act as acid/base catalysts in the catalytic reaction via a cis-enediol intermediate. Glu211 and Arg243 were found to be responsible for the recognition of substrates with various configurations at 4- and 5-positions of sugar. CpL-RI formed a homo-tetramer in crystals, and the catalytic site independently consisted of residues within a subunit, suggesting that the catalytic site acted independently. Crystal structure and site-direct mutagenesis analyses showed that the tetramer structure is essential for the enzyme activity and that each subunit of CpL-RI could be structurally stabilized by intermolecular contacts with other subunits. The results of growth complementation assays suggest that CpL-RI is involved in a novel metabolic pathway using L-ribose as a carbon source.

Production of L-allose and D-talose from L-psicose and D-tagatose by L-ribose isomerase.

L-ribose isomerase (L-RI) from Cellulomonas parahominis MB426 can convert L-psicose and D-tagatose to L-allose and D-talose, respectively. Partially purified recombinant L-RI from Escherichia coli JM109 was immobilized on DIAION HPA25L resin and then utilized to produce L-allose and D-talose. Conversion reaction was performed with the reaction mixture containing 10% L-psicose or D-tagatose and immobilized L-RI at 40 °C. At equilibrium state, the yield of L-allose and D-talose was 35.0% and 13.0%, respectively. Immobilized enzyme could convert L-psicose to L-allose without remarkable decrease in the enzyme activity over 7 times use and D-tagatose to D-talose over 37 times use. After separation and concentration, the mixture solution of L-allose and D-talose was concentrated up to 70% and crystallized by keeping at 4 °C. L-Allose and d-talose crystals were collected from the syrup by filtration. The final yield was 23.0% L-allose and 7.30% D-talose that were obtained from L-psicose and D-tagatose, respectively.

Structural insight into L-ribulose 3-epimerase from Mesorhizobium loti.

L-Ribulose 3-epimerase (L-RE) from Mesorhizobium loti has been identified as the first ketose 3-epimerase that shows the highest observed activity towards ketopentoses. In the present study, the crystal structure of the enzyme was determined to 2.7 Šresolution. The asymmetric unit contained two homotetramers with the monomer folded into an (α/ß)8-barrel carrying four additional short α-helices. The overall structure of M. loti L-RE showed significant similarity to the structures of ketose 3-epimerases from Pseudomonas cichorii, Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Clostridium cellulolyticum, which use ketohexoses as preferred substrates. However, the size of the C-terminal helix (α8) was much larger in M. loti L-RE than the corresponding helices in the other enzymes. In M. loti L-RE the α8 helix and the following C-terminal tail possessed a unique subunit-subunit interface which promoted the formation of additional intermolecular interactions and strengthened the enzyme stability. Structural comparisons revealed that the relatively small hydrophobic pocket of the enzyme around the substrate was likely to be the main factor responsible for the marked specificity for ketopentoses shown by M. loti L-RE.

Preparation of D-gulose from disaccharide lactitol using microbial and chemical methods.

When an M31 strain of Agrobacterium tumefaciens was grown in a mineral salt medium at 30 °C containing 1.0% lactitol as sole carbon source, a keto-sugar was efficiently accumulated in the supernatant. This oxidation from lactitol to the keto-sugar was caused by M31 cells grown with medium containing a disaccharide unit, including sucrose, lactitol, lactose, maltose, or maltitol, suggesting that the enzyme is inducible. M31 also demonstrated good growth characteristics in Tryptic Soy Broth (TSB) medium containing 1.0% sucrose, and cells grown under these conditions showed strong lactitol transformation activity. The keto-sugar product was reduced by chemical hydrogenation and the resulting product was hydrolyzed to D-gulose, D-galactose, and D-sorbitol by acid hydrolysis, revealing that the reduced products are lactitol and D-gulosyl-(ß-1,4)-D-sorbitol. Taken together, these results indicate that M31 can convert lactitol to 3-ketolactitol and thus provide access to the rare sugar D-gulose.

Gene cloning and characterization of L-ribulose 3-epimerase from Mesorhizobium loti and its application to rare sugar production.

A gene encoding L-ribulose 3-epimerase (L-RE) from Mesorhizobium loti, an important enzyme for rare sugar production by the Izumoring strategy, was cloned and overexpressed. The enzyme showed highest activity toward L-ribulose (230 U/mg) among keto-pentoses and keto-hexoses. This is the first report on a ketose 3-epimerase showing highest activity toward keto-pentose. The optimum enzyme reaction conditions for L-RE were determined to be sodium phosphate buffer (pH 8.0) at 60 °C. The enzyme showed of higher maximum reaction a rate (416 U/mg) and catalytic efficiency (43 M(-1) min(-1)) for L-ribulose than other known ketose 3-epimerases. It was able to produce L-xylulose efficiently from ribitol in two-step reactions. In the end, 7.2 g of L-xylulose was obtained from 20 g of ribitol via L-ribulose at a yield of 36%.

Enzymatic and mutational analyses of a class II 3',5'-cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase, PdeE, from Myxococcus xanthus.

Myxococcus xanthus PdeE, an enzyme homologous to class II 3',5'-cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases, hydrolyzed cyclic AMP (cAMP) and cGMP with K(m) values of 12 µM and 25 µM, respectively. A pdeE mutant exhibited delays in fruiting body and spore formation compared with the wild type when cultured on starvation medium.

Characterization of Mesorhizobium loti L-rhamnose isomerase and its application to L-talose production.

The L-rhamnose isomerase gene (rhi) of Mesorhizobium loti was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli, and then characterized. The enzyme exhibited activity with respect to various aldoses, including D-allose and L-talose. Application of it in L-talose production from galactitol was achieved by a two-step reaction, indicating that it can be utilized in the large-scale production of L-talose.

Cloning and overexpression of the xylitol dehydrogenase gene from Bacillus pallidus and its application to L-xylulose production.

The xylitol dehydrogenase gene (xdh) of Bacillus pallidus was cloned and overexpressed in Escherichia coli using pQE60 vector, for the first time. The open reading frame of 759 bp encoded a 253 amino acid protein with a calculated molecular mass of 27,333 Da. The recombinant xylitol dehydrogenase (XDH) was purified to homogeneity by three-step column chromatography, producing a single SDS-PAGE band of 28 kDa apparent molecular mass. The enzyme exhibited maximal activity at 55 °C in glycine-NaOH buffer pH 11.0, with 66% of initial enzyme activity retained after incubation at 40 °C for 1 h. In further application of the recombinant bacterium to L-xylulose production from xylitol (initial concentration 5%) using a resting cell reaction, 35% L-xylulose was produced within 24 h. This result indicates that this recombinant XDH is applicable in the large-scale production of L-xylulose.

Polyol conversion specificity of Bacillus pallidus.

The conversion specificity of Bacillus pallidus Y25 for polyols, including elusive rare sugar alcohols, was investigated. B. pallidus cells showed transformation potential for several rare polyols, including allitol, L-mannitol, D/L-talitol, and D-iditol, and converted them to their corresponding ketoses. This indicates that the bacterium had two polyol dehydrogenases specific for polyols that have D-erythro and D-threo configurations. By combination with intrinsic isomerases, polyols were converted directly to various aldoses, including L-xylose, L-talose, D-altrose, and L-glucose.

Cloning, expression, and transcription analysis of L-arabinose isomerase gene from Mycobacterium smegmatis SMDU.

The L-arabinose metabolic gene cluster, araA, araB, araD, araG, araH and araR, encoding L-arabinose isomerase (L-AI) and its accessory proteins was cloned from Mycobacterium smegmatis SMDU and sequenced. The deduced amino acid sequence of araA displayed highest identity with that of Bacillus subtilis (52%). These six genes comprised the L-arabinose operon, and its genetic arrangement was similar to that of B. subtilis. The L-AI gene (araA), encoding a 501 amino acid protein with a calculated molecular mass of 54,888 Da, was expressed in Escherichia coli. The productivity and overall enzymatic properties of the recombinant L-AI were almost same as the authentic L-AI from M. smegmatis. Although the recombinant L-AI showed high substrate specificity, as did L-AI from other organisms, this enzyme catalyzed not only isomerization of L-arabinose-L-ribulose and D-galactose-D-tagatose but also isomerization of L-altrose-L-psicose and L-erythrulose-L-threose. In combination with L-AI from M. smegmatis, L-threose and L-altrose can be produced from cheap and abundant erythritol and D-fructose respectively, indicating that this enzyme has great potential for biological application in rare sugar production. Transcription analysis using various sugars revealed that this enzyme was significantly induced not only by L-arabinose and D-galactose but also by L-ribose, galactitol, L-ribulose, and L-talitol. This different result of transcription mediated by sugars from that of E. coli suggests that the transcriptional regulation of araA from M. smegmatis against sugar is loose compared with that from E. coli, and that it depends on the hydroxyl configuration at C2, C3 and C4 positions of sugars.

Bioproduction of D-psicose from allitol with Enterobacter aerogenes IK7: a new frontier in rare ketose production.

D-psicose, a new alternative sweetener, was produced from allitol by microbial oxidation of the newly isolated strain Enterobacter aerogenes IK7. Cells grown in tryptic soy broth medium (TSB) supplemented with D-mannitol at 37 degrees C were found to have the best oxidation potential. The cells, owing to broad substrate specificity, oxidized various polyols (tetritol, pentitol, and hexitol) to corresponding rare ketoses. By a resting cell reaction, 10% of allitol was completely transformed to the product D-psicose, which thus becomes economically feasible for the mass production of D-psicose. Finally, the product was crystallized and confirmed to be D-psicose by analytical methods.

Efficient conversion of allitol to D-psicose by Bacillus pallidus Y25.

An efficient method for conversion of allitol to D-psicose was achieved by a resting cell reaction of Bacillus pallidus Y25 for the first time. Notably, it was possible to produce D-allose and D-altrose from allitol directly via D-psicose by prolonging the reaction time. This method was applied for the preparation of D-psicose using the extract of Itea virginica as a starting material in this study. D-Psicose which is the absolutely key precursor for the production of other six carbon sugars could be obtained as the sole product at high yield.

Amylolytic Enzymes Acquired from L-Lactic Acid Producing Enterococcus faecium K-1 and Improvement of Direct Lactic Acid Production from Cassava Starch.

An amylolytic lactic acid bacterium isolate K-1 was isolated from the wastewater of a cassava starch manufacturing factory and identified as Entercoccus faecium based on 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis. An extracellular α-amylase was purified to homogeneity and the molecular weight of the purified enzyme was approximately 112 kDa with optimal pH value and temperature measured of 7.0 and 40 °C, respectively. It was stable at a pH range of 6.0-7.0, but was markedly sensitive to high temperatures and low pH conditions, even at a pH value of 5. Ba2+, Al3+, and Co2+ activated enzyme activity. This bacterium was capable of producing 99.2% high optically pure L-lactic acid of 4.3 and 8.2 g/L under uncontrolled and controlled pH at 6.5 conditions, respectively, in the MRS broth containing 10 g/L cassava starch as the sole carbon source when cultivated at 37 °C for 48 h. A control pH condition of 6.5 improved and stabilized the yield of L-lactic acid production directly from starch even at a high concentration of starch at up to 150 g/L. This paper is the first report describing the properties of purified α-amylase from E. faecium. Additionally, pullulanase and cyclodextrinase activities were also firstly recorded from E. faecium K-1.

Production and application of a rare disaccharide using sucrose phosphorylase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides.

Sucrose phosphorylase (SPase) from Leuconostoc mesenteroides exhibited activity towards eight ketohexoses, which behaved as D-glucosyl acceptors, and α-D-glucose-1-phosphate (G1P), which behaved as a donor. All eight of these ketohexoses were subsequently transformed into the corresponding d-glucosyl-ketohexoses. Of the eight ketohexoses evaluated in the current study, d-allulose behaved as the best substrate for SPase, and the resulting d-glucosyl-d-alluloside product was found to be a non-reducing sugar with a specific optical rotation of [α]D(20) + 74.36°. D-Glucosyl-D-alluloside was identified as α-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-ß-D-allulofuranoside by NMR analysis. D-Glucosyl-D-alluloside exhibited an inhibitory activity towards an invertase from yeast with a Km value of 50 mM, where it behaved as a competitive inhibitor with a Ki value of 9.2 mM. D-Glucosyl-D-alluloside was also successfully produced from sucrose using SPase and D-tagatose 3-epimerase. This process also allowed for the production of G1P from sucrose and d-allulose from D-fructose, which suggested that this method could be used to prepare d-glucosyl-d-alluloside without the need for expensive reagents such as G1P and d-allulose.

Izumoring: a novel and complete strategy for bioproduction of rare sugars.

Starch, whey or hemicellulosic waste can be used as a raw material for the industrial production of rare sugars. D-glucose from starch, whey and hemicellulose, D-galactose from whey, and D-xylose from hemicellulose are the main starting monosaccharides for production of rare sugars. We can produce all monosaccharides; tetroses, pentoses and hexoses, from these raw materials. This is achieved by using D-tagatose 3-epimerase, aldose isomerase, aldose reductase, and oxidoreductase enzymes or whole cells as biocatalysts. Bioproduction strategies for all rare sugars are illustrated using ring form structures given the name Izumoring.

Structure of D-tagatose 3-epimerase-like protein from Methanocaldococcus jannaschii.

The crystal structure of a D-tagatose 3-epimerase-like protein (MJ1311p) encoded by a hypothetical open reading frame, MJ1311, in the genome of the hyperthermophilic archaeon Methanocaldococcus jannaschii was determined at a resolution of 2.64 Å. The asymmetric unit contained two homologous subunits, and the dimer was generated by twofold symmetry. The overall fold of the subunit proved to be similar to those of the D-tagatose 3-epimerase from Pseudomonas cichorii and the D-psicose 3-epimerases from Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Clostridium cellulolyticum. However, the situation at the subunit-subunit interface differed substantially from that in D-tagatose 3-epimerase family enzymes. In MJ1311p, Glu125, Leu126 and Trp127 from one subunit were found to be located over the metal-ion-binding site of the other subunit and appeared to contribute to the active site, narrowing the substrate-binding cleft. Moreover, the nine residues comprising a trinuclear zinc centre in endonuclease IV were found to be strictly conserved in MJ1311p, although a distinct groove involved in DNA binding was not present. These findings indicate that the active-site architecture of MJ1311p is quite unique and is substantially different from those of D-tagatose 3-epimerase family enzymes and endonuclease IV.

X-ray structure of a novel L-ribose isomerase acting on a non-natural sugar L-ribose as its ideal substrate.

UNLABELLED: l-Ribose, a pentose, is not known to exist in nature. Although organisms typically do not have a metabolic pathway that uses l-ribose as a carbon source, prokaryotes use various sugars as carbon sources for survival. Acinetobacter sp. DL-28 has been shown to express the novel enzyme, l-ribose isomerase (AcL-RbI), which catalyzes reversible isomerization between l-ribose and l-ribulose. AcL-RbI showed the highest activity to l-ribose, followed by d-lyxose with 47% activity, and had no significant amino acid sequence similarity to structure-known proteins, except for weak homology with the d-lyxose isomerases from Escherichia coli O157 : H7 (18%) and Bacillus subtilis strain (19%). Thus, AcL-RbI is expected to have the unique three-dimensional structure to recognize l-ribose as its ideal substrate. The X-ray structures of AcL-RbI in complexes with substrates were determined. AcL-RbI had a cupin-type ß-barrel structure, and the catalytic site was found between two large ß-sheets with a bound metal ion. The catalytic site structures clearly showed that AcL-RbI adopted a cis-enediol intermediate mechanism for the isomerization reaction using two glutamate residues (Glu113 and Glu204) as acid/base catalysts. In its crystal form, AcL-RbI formed a unique homotetramer with many substrate sub-binding sites, which likely facilitated capture of the substrate. DATABASE: The atomic coordinates and structure factors of AcL-RbI/l-ribose, AcL-RbI/l-ribulose, AcL-RbI/ribitol, E204Q/l-ribose and E204Q/l-ribulose have been deposited in the Protein Data Bank under accession codes, 4Q0P, 4Q0Q, 4Q0S, 4Q0U and 4Q0V.