Maternal and infant characteristics connected to shared pleasure in dyadic interaction.

The aim of the study was to analyze which maternal factors (depressive symptoms, effect of life events, maternal sensitivity and structuring) and infant characteristics (temperament, social withdrawal symptoms, interactive behavior, genotype, gender) contribute to shared pleasure (SP) in parent-infant interaction. Participants were 113 mother-infant dyads. The mothers filled in the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, the Infant Behavior Questionnaire, and the Life Events Questionnaire. The dyads were videotaped in a free-play situation, and the videos were analyzed using the Alarm Distress Baby Scale and the Emotional Availability Scales. The infants were genotyped for four genes involved in emotion regulation. The occurrence and duration of SP (SP-MD) in mother-infant interactions were analyzed from the videotapes. Higher maternal sensitivity and depressive symptoms, better infant responsiveness, and the infant having the GG variant of the gene tryptophan hydroxylase isoform 2 (TPH2) -307 were associated with the occurrence of SP. Lower level depressive symptoms, better maternal structuring, and greater infant involvement were associated with the longer duration of SP. Those dyads where the mother and infant were best able to read each other's positive cues and to respond to them were more likely to experience mutual positive affect, as seen in SP.

El propósito de este estudio fue analizar cuáles factores maternos (síntomas depresivos, efectos de eventos vividos, sensibilidad y estructuración maternas) y características del infante (temperamento, síntomas de despego social, comportamiento interactivo, genotipo, género sexual) contribuyen al placer compartido (SP) en la interacción progenitor-infante. En el estudio participaron 113 díadas madre-infante. Las madres completaron la Escala de Depresión Postnatal de Edimburgo, el Cuestionario de Comportamiento del Infante y el Cuestionario de Eventos de Vida. A las díadas se les grabó en video durante una sesión de juego libre y los videos se analizaron usando la Escala de Alarma de la Angustia del Bebé y las Escalas de Disponibilidad Emocional. A los infantes se les determinó el genotipo en el caso de cuatro genes que tienen que ver con la regulación emocional. Con base en las videograbaciones, se analizó la incidencia y duración de SP (SP-MD) en las interacciones madre-infante. Una más alta sensibilidad materna y síntomas depresivos, mejor sensibilidad por parte del infante, y el hecho de que el infante tenía la variante GG del gen TPH2 -307 se asociaron con la incidencia de SP. Síntomas depresivos de bajo nivel, una mejor estructuración materna y una mayor participación del infante se asociaron con una más larga duración de SP. Aquellas díadas en que la madre y el infante eran más capaces de comprender las señales positivas de cada uno y de responder a las mismas, estaban en mejor condición de experimentar un mutuo afecto positivo, como el que se ve en SP.

Le but de cette étude était d'analyser quels facteurs maternels (symptômes dépressifs, effet d'événements de la vie, sensibilité maternelle et structuration maternelle) et quelles caractéristiques du nourrisson (tempérament, symptômes de retrait social, comportement interactif, génotype, genre) contribuent au plaisir partagé (abrégé ici en français PP) dans l'interaction parent-nourrisson. Les participants ont consisté en 113 dyades mère-nourrisson. Les mères ont rempli l'Echelle de Dépression Postnatale d'Edinbourg, le Questionnaire du Comportement du Nourrisson, et le Questionnaire d'Evénements de la Vie. Les dyades ont été filmées à la vidéo pendant une situation de jeu libre et les vidéos ont été analysées en utilisant l'Echelle d'Alarme de Détresse du Bébé et les Echelles de Disponibilité Emotionnelle. Les nourrissons ont été génotypés pour quatre gènes impliqués dans la régulation de l'émotion. L'apparition et la durée du PP (en anglais SP-MD) dans les interactions mère-nourrisson ont été analysées à partir des vidéos. Une sensibilité maternelle plus élevée et des symptômes dépressifs, une meilleure réaction du nourrisson, le nourrisson ayant la variante GG du gène TPH2 -307 étaient liés à l'apparition du PP. Des niveaux plus bas de symptômes dépressifs, une meilleure structuration maternelle et un engagement plus important du nourrisson étaient liés à une durée plus longue du PP. Les dyades où la mère et le nourrisson étaient le plus capables de lire leurs signaux positifs réciproques et d'y répondre étaient moins à même de faire l'expérience d'une affect positif mutuel, comme on le voit dans le PP.

THE WORLDWIDE BURDEN OF INFANT MENTAL AND EMOTIONAL DISORDER: REPORT OF THE TASK FORCE OF THE WORLD ASSOCIATION FOR INFANT MENTAL HEALTH.

Children worldwide experience mental and emotional disorders. Mental disorders occurring among young children, especially infants (birth -3 years), often go unrecognized. Prevalence rates are difficult to determine because of lack of awareness and difficulty assessing and diagnosing young children. Existing data, however, suggest that rates of disorders in young children are comparable to those of older children and adolescents (von Klitzing, Dohnert, Kroll, & Grube, ). The lack of widespread recognition of disorders of infancy is particularly concerning due to the unique positioning of infancy as foundational in the developmental process. Both the brain and behavior are in vulnerable states of development across the first 3 years of life, with potential for enduring deviations to occur in response to early trauma and deprivation. Intervention approaches for young children require sensitivity to their developmental needs within their families. The primacy of infancy as a time of unique foundational risks for disorder, the impact of trauma and violence on young children's development, the impact of family disruption on children's attachment, and existing literature on prevalence rates of early disorders are discussed. Finally, global priorities for addressing these disorders of infancy are highlighted to support prevention and intervention actions that may alleviate suffering among our youngest world citizens.

[Infant psychiatry - more reality than tale]. / Pikkulapsipsykiatria - ei tarua vaan todellisuutta.

In early childhood, the ability of the parent and the child to adapt to each other's needs during early interaction is essential for a healthy mental development.The parent's ability to carry out adequate early interaction may be compromised because of various problems. Positive, shared emotional experiences with the parent can protect the child's mental health. Severe or prolonged problems in baby care, interaction or behavior of the infant may result in the development of a psychic disorder in the infant. Infant psychiatric diagnosis and treatment plan are based on clinical examination of the child and the family and evaluation of the need for support.

Shared pleasure in early mother-infant interaction: predicting lower levels of emotional and behavioral problems in the child and protecting against the influence of parental psychopathology.

Shared pleasure (SP) was analyzed in fifty-eight 2-month-old infants and their mothers in face-to-face interaction (T1, at 2 months). The association of SP with child's emotional and behavioral outcome at 2 years (T2) was examined. SP as a possible protecting factor in the presence of parental psychopathology also was studied. Mean duration of SP moments (SP-MD) was related to subsequent socioemotional outcome of the child: Infants of dyads with longer SP-MD showed fewer internalizing and externalizing problems 2 years later. In hierarchical linear regressions, SP-MD uniquely and significantly contributed to internalizing problems after adjusting for infant and maternal factors and mother's interactive behavior. SP protected the child against the influence of parental psychopathology. Father's mental health problems during the follow-up increased the child's risk for higher externalizing and internalizing problems, but only among children with short SP-MD at T1. Internalizing symptoms at T2 increased when moving from the category "no mental health problems" to "mental health problems in one parent" and further to "mental health problems in both parents," but this increase was found only among those with short SP-MD at T1. SP in parent-child interaction is an important feature that fosters positive psychological development and moderates the health effects of other risks such as parental psychopathology.

Cutting a long story short? The clinical relevance of asking parents, nurses, and young children themselves to identify children's mental health problems by one or two questions.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Assessing young children's mental health is a crucial and challenging task. The aim of the study was to evaluate the clinical relevance of asking parents, nurses, and young children themselves to identify children's mental health problems by only one or two questions. METHODS: In regular health check-ups of 4- to 9-year-old children (n = 2682), parents and public health nurses assessed by one question whether the child had any emotional or behavioral difficulties. The child completed a self-evaluation enquiry on his/her emotional well-being. A stratified proportion of the participating parents were invited to a diagnostic interview. RESULTS: Sensitivities were fairly good for the parents' (68%), nurses' (65%), and their combined (79%) one-question screens. Difficulties identified by parents and nurses were major risks (OR 10-14) for any child psychiatric disorders (P < 0.001). The child's self-evaluation was related to 2-fold to 3-fold risks (P < 0.05) for any psychiatric diagnosis, for any emotional diagnosis, and for negative situational factors. CONCLUSION: The one-question screen for parents and public health nurses together quite adequately identified the young children with mental health problems. The child's self-evaluation provided relevant and complementary information on his/her mental health and especially emotional problems.

Finnish norms for young children on the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire.

BACKGROUND: Early recognition of children's mental health problems is crucial. Although the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) is a commonly used screening method, further research is needed on its validity and norms for young children. AIMS: The aims of the study were to confirm the adjusted lower (normal/borderline) and upper (borderline/abnormal) cut-offs for the SDQ in a Finnish community sample of 4-9-year-old children, and to explore the SDQ's ability to identify the children with mental health problems. METHODS: Parents and teachers completed the SDQs (n = 2666). The Development and Well-Being Assessment (DAWBA) was administered to parents and teachers of 646 children. RESULTS: The overall participation rate was 57%. The suggested cut-offs for the SDQ total difficulties scale rated by parents and teachers were 2-5 points lower than the corresponding published British norms. The sensitivity for the total score normal/borderline cut-off (9/10) was 76% in the parent and 66% in the teacher reports and for the borderline/abnormal cut-off (11/12) 90% and 70% respectively. The respective specificity values were 69%, 63%, 74% and 66%. The area under curve (AUC) values of the higher cut-offs were good for parent (0.87) and satisfactory for teacher rated (0.76) total scores. The presence of a DAWBA-rater assigned diagnosis in the abnormal group compared with the normal group was sixfold in the parent and threefold in the teacher reported SDQs. CONCLUSIONS: The suggested cut-offs were clearly lower than the British norms. Yet the properties of the method's discriminative validity were acceptable. Population specific norms, taking into account both the culture and children's age, seem necessary for screening and for international comparisons of the method's validity properties.

Maternal depressive symptoms: associations with adolescents' internalizing and externalizing problems and social competence.

BACKGROUND: The negative effect of maternal depressive symptoms on child wellbeing has been quite extensively studied. There is, however, debate as to whether it is the timing, the recurrence or the chronicity of maternal depressive symptoms that puts the child's wellbeing at risk. AIMS: This study explores the associations between the timing, recurrence and the patterns of maternal depressive symptoms and adolescent psychosocial functioning. METHODS: One hundred and ninety-one mothers and 192 adolescents were followed up from the mother's pregnancy to the child's adolescence. Maternal depressive symptoms were screened with the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale prenatally, postnatally, in early and middle childhood, and at adolescence. The adolescents' outcomes were screened using Child Behavior Checklists and Youth Self Reports. RESULTS: The results indicate that the initial exposure to maternal depressive symptoms at pregnancy is associated with more externalizing problems in adolescence, 2 months postnatally with more internalizing problems, in early childhood with poorer social competence and concurrently with more externalizing problems. Combined analyses indicate that recurrent maternal depressive symptoms best explain adolescents' internalizing problems and the chronic pattern of maternal depressive symptoms externalizing problems. The chronic and intermittent patterns of maternal depressive symptoms best explained adolescents' poorer social competence. CONCLUSIONS: Recurrent or chronic maternal depressive symptoms rather than the timing predict adolescents' psychosocial problems better. The timing, however, may explain the different kinds of problems in adolescence depending on the developmental task at the time of the exposure. The findings should be noted when treating both mothers and children in psychiatric clinics and other health services.

Do headache and abdominal pain in childhood predict suicides and severe suicide attempts? Finnish nationwide 1981 birth cohort study.

This study investigated associations between pain symptoms in mid-childhood and severe suicidality in adolescence and early adulthood. Severe suicidality was defined as completed suicide or suicidal attempt requiring hospital admission. In a nationwide prospective population-based study (n = 6,017), parents and children were asked about the child's headache and abdominal pain at age eight. The outcome was register-based data on suicide or suicidal attempt requiring hospital treatment by age 24. Family composition, parental educational level, and the child's psychiatric symptoms reported by the child, parents and teacher at baseline were included as covariates in statistical analyses. Boys' abdominal pain reported by the parents was associated with later severe suicidality after adjusting for family composition, parental educational level, and childhood psychiatric symptoms at baseline. In addition, the association between boys' own report of headache and later severe suicidality reached borderline significance in unadjusted analysis. Girls' pain symptoms did not predict later severe suicidality.

Feasibility of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire in assessing children's mental health in primary care: Finnish parents', teachers' and public health nurses' experiences with the SDQ.

BACKGROUND: The aim of the study was to evaluate the feasibility of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). METHOD: Following the administration of the SDQ in medical check-ups of 4-9 year-old children (n = 2 682) the involved parents, teachers and public health nurses were asked to complete a feedback questionnaire of the SDQ. RESULTS: Parents took a maximum of 10-15 minutes to complete the SDQ, and only the public health nurses reported that its use was rather burdensome. The SDQ was an age-appropriate method and it was helpful in increasing information and agreement about the child's mental health and need for support. Using the SDQ was a positive experience for parents, but they expected more dialogue with the professionals about the child's situation. The respondents criticised the questionnaire somewhat for being difficult to interpret and complete. CONCLUSIONS: The SDQ was found to be a feasible method for screening children's mental health in primary health care together with parents, teachers and public health nurses. Using the SDQ was a positive experience for parents. However, they reminded the professionals of the importance of sensitive dialogue when assessing the mental health of the child.

[Investments of research and treatment of brain diseases will pay of time]. / Aivosairaudet ovat kalleimmat kansantautimme.

In 2010, a quarter of direct healthcare cost in Europe were spent on brain diseases. The importance of preventing and treating brain diseases and maintaining of functional capacity of the brain will increase in our society with ageing population and with increasing cognitive requirements of modern working life. Public funding of basic and clinical neuroscience has, however, frozen to levels achieved years ago, clinical research of brain diseases being at a particular risk. Research projects directed to prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation of brain diseases will pay off, also when assessed by economic measures.

Fathers' postnatal depressive and anxiety symptoms: an exploration of links with paternal, maternal, infant and family factors.

BACKGROUND: Postnatal psychological symptoms have been studied less often in fathers than in mothers. However, recent research shows that fathers' psychopathology may have long-term effects on their children's emotional and behavioural development independently of maternal psychopathology. More research is needed on factors associated with paternal symptoms at the early stage of child development. AIMS: The aim of the study was to examine the paternal, maternal, infant and family factors associated with the occurrence of depressive and anxiety symptoms in fathers of infants. METHODS: As part of a study conducted in Tampere, Finland, on infants' social withdrawal symptoms, both parents of 4-, 8- and 18-month-old infants (n = 194) completed the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) and general information questionnaires during routine check-ups of the infants in well-baby clinics. Parental depressive and anxiety symptoms were screened using the recommended cut-off points for this purpose (5/6 for fathers and 7/8 for mothers on the EPDS). The associations between the fathers' symptoms and paternal, maternal, infant and family factors were explored. RESULTS: Twenty-one per cent of the fathers and 24% of the mothers scored above the cut-off points for depressive and anxiety symptoms on the EPDS. Both paternal and maternal factors predicted high paternal symptom level in regression models. Infant factors were not statistically significantly associated with paternal symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Father's psychological symptoms were associated with many facets of both parents' impaired well-being. The whole family system should be considered whenever there are concerns about either parent's psychological well-being.

Childhood predictors of antipsychotic use among young people in Finland.

OBJECTIVE: Information on who uses antipsychotic medication is limited to cross-sectional data. The objective of this study was to study the patterns of psychopathology at age 8 years and antipsychotic use between the ages of 12 and 25 years. METHODS: A total of 5525 subjects from the Finnish Nationwide 1981 birth cohort were linked to the National Prescription Register and the Hospital Discharge Register between 1994 and 2005. Information about parent-reported and teacher-reported conduct, hyperkinetic and emotional symptoms, and self-reported depressive symptoms was gathered at age 8 years. Information about antipsychotic use and about psychiatric disorders treated in hospitals between the ages of 12 and 25 years was register based. Diagnostic classes of hospital treatment included non-affective psychoses, affective disorders, and other psychiatric disorders. RESULTS: The cumulative incidence of antipsychotic use by age 25 years was 2.8% among men (n = 69) and 2.1% among women (n = 55). In both sexes, living with other than two biological parents at age 8 years was associated with antipsychotic use, and three fourths of antipsychotic users had been treated for psychiatric disorders in a hospital. Among men, the most common hospital diagnosis was non-affective psychoses (44% of all antipsychotic users), and antipsychotic use was associated with childhood conduct problems. Among women, the most common hospital diagnosis was affective disorders (38% of all antipsychotic users), and antipsychotic use was associated with emotional problems and self-reported depressive symptoms in childhood. CONCLUSIONS: Antipsychotic use in adolescence and young adulthood is different among men versus women both with regard to hospital diagnoses and childhood psychiatric problems.

Childhood predictors of becoming a teenage mother among Finnish girls.

OBJECTIVE: To study predictive associations between psychosocial factors at age 8 and becoming a mother under the age of 20. DESIGN: Prospective follow-up study. SETTING: Finland. POPULATION: 2867 girls born in 1981. METHODS: Information on family background and psychiatric symptoms was collected at age 8. The associations between these factors and becoming a teenage mother were analyzed using logistic regression analysis. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Data on births by the age of 20 collected from the hospital discharge register. RESULTS: 128 girls (4.8%) had given birth at the age of 15-19 years. Childhood conduct problems and hyperactive problems, having young mother and family structure other than two biological parents had an independent association with becoming a teenage mother. CONCLUSIONS: Girls with externalizing type of problems in childhood have an increased risk of becoming teenage mothers. These problems may also complicate their motherhood.

Psychosocial factors associated with becoming a young father in Finland: a nationwide longitudinal study.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the characteristics of boys who become fathers at young age. Some studies have suggested that antisocial adolescents are more likely to be young fathers. The aim of this study was to examine the associations of psychosocial factors in childhood with becoming a young father, and to assess if they are independent of criminal behavior in adolescence. METHODS: The baseline assessment in 1989 included 2,946 boys born in 1981. Information about psychiatric symptoms at age eight was collected with Rutter questionnaires from parents and teachers and with the Child Depression Inventory from the children themselves. Data on criminal offenses at age 16-20 was collected from a police register. Register-based follow-up data on becoming a father under the age of 22 was available for 2,721 boys. RESULTS: The factors measured at age eight, which were associated with becoming a young father independently of adolescent criminality, were conduct problems, being born to a young father and having a mother with a low educational level. Having repeatedly committed criminal offences in adolescence was associated with becoming a young father independently of psychosocial factors in childhood. CONCLUSIONS: Antisocial tendencies both in childhood and adolescence are associated with becoming a young father. They should be taken into consideration when designing preventive or supportive interventions.

What is the long-term outcome of boys who steal at age eight? Findings from the Finnish nationwide "From A Boy To A Man" birth cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: The aim was to study predictive associations between childhood stealing behavior at the of age 8 years with later psychiatric disorders, criminality or suicide attempts and completed suicides up to the age 25 years in a large representative population-based birth cohort. METHOD: The sample includes 2,592 Finnish males born in 1981 with information about stealing from both parents and teachers. Information about psychiatric disorders, criminality, suicide attempts requiring hospital admission and completed suicides was gathered from four different Finnish nationwide registries until the study participants were 25 years old. RESULTS: One out of ten boys had stealing behavior during the previous 12 months. After adjusting for parental education level and conduct problems or hyperactivity (i.e. potential confounds), stealing at eight independently predicted substance use and antisocial personality disorders, and high level of crimes. Stealing was also associated with completed suicide or severe suicide attempt requiring hospital admission. Comorbid stealing and frequent aggression had the strongest predictive association with any psychiatric diagnosis, crime and completed suicide or severe suicide attempt, while stealing without aggression was not associated with any of the negative outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Stealing accompanied with aggressivity at age eight is predictive of wide range of adversities. However, no increased risk was observed among the group with stealing behaviors but without aggression.

Reliability of the strengths and difficulties questionnaire among Finnish 4-9-year-old children.

BACKGROUND: Early recognition of children's mental health problems calls for structured methods in front line services. The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) is a commonly used short questionnaire in screening child's mental difficulties. AIM: To test the reliability and descriptive properties of the SDQ in a community sample of Finnish 4-9-year-old children (n = 4178). METHODS: Both parents, two teachers in day-care or a teacher at school completed the SDQ. To control for possible bias, public health nurses rated their concern about every child's mental health, including non-participants. RESULTS: The internal consistencies of the SDQ total score in all informants' reports were satisfactory to good. Agreement (Spearman rho) in total scores between parents was 0.65, between parent and teacher 0.43 and between two teachers in day-care 0.81. The stability in parent's reports over 12 weeks was good. The distributions of the informant-rated scores indicated significant and clinically important gender differences, and the 80th and 90th percentiles were generally below the international cut-off points. Public health nurses reported emotional or behavioural difficulties more commonly in non-participants (12%) than in participants (7%; p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The results supported earlier findings of good internal consistency, inter-rater and cross-informant agreements and test-retest of the method. However, the gender and age of the child, the number of informants and cultural differences in reporting styles affected the results and thus confirmed the need to re-evaluate the SDQ in the culture and population in question.

Predicting internalizing and externalizing problems at five years by child and parental factors in infancy and toddlerhood.

This study examined child and parental factors in infancy and toddlerhood predicting subclinical or clinical levels of internalizing and externalizing problems at 5 years of age. Ninety-six children and their families participated. They were assessed when the children were 4-10 weeks old (T1), 2 years (T2) and 5 years old (T3). Child risks (difficult temperament, health problems, early emotional and behavioral problems), parental risks (psychopathology, parenting stress and perception of the child) and family risks (socio-economic status, quality of marital relationship and family violence) were examined. At 5 years, internalizing problems were predicted by family violence during the child's infancy and parenting stress at age 2. Externalizing problems were predicted by psychiatric problems of the mother before pregnancy and child's externalizing problems at 2 years of age. When interventions aiming at preventing emotional and behavioral problems in children are considered, these issues should be recognized early and effective intervention initiated.

Childhood bullying and becoming a young father in a national cohort of Finnish boys.

Childhood bullying is known to be associated with various adverse psychosocial outcomes in later life. No studies exist on its association with becoming a young father. The study is based on a national cohort, which included 2,946 Finnish boys at baseline in 1989. Information on bullying was collected from children, their parents and their teachers. Follow-up data on becoming a father under the age of 22 were collected from a nationwide register. The follow-up sample included 2,721 boys. Bullying other children frequently was significantly associated with becoming a young father independently of being victimized, childhood psychiatric symptoms and parental educational level. Being a victim of bullying was not associated with becoming a young father when adjusted for possible confounders. When the co-occurrence of bullying and victimization was studied, it was found that being a bully-victim, but not a pure bully or a pure victim, is significantly associated with becoming a young father. This study adds to other studies, which have shown that the risk profile and relational patterns of bully-victims differ from those of other children, and it emphasizes the importance of including peer relationships when studying young fathers.

Psychotherapy groups and individual support to enhance mental health and early dyadic interaction among drug-abusing mothers.

The purpose of this controlled study was to examine the outcome of psychodynamic mother-infant group psychotherapy (PGT) outpatient intervention for drug-abusing perinatal mother-infant dyads. PGT comprised 20 to 24 weekly 3-hr sessions with 3 to 5 months of follow-up. A comparison intervention group was formed of mothers participating in individually tailored psychosocial support (PSS) lasting, on average, 12 months and providing mother-infant support and practical counseling. We hypothesized that positive changes would occur in maternal drug abuse, mental health, and mother-infant interaction, especially in the PGT group due to its more intensive therapeutic focus. Participants were 26 drug-abusing dyads in PGT, 25 in PSS, and 50 dyads in a non-drug-abusing comparison group. Assessments were pre-intervention and at 4 and 12 months' follow-up, including maternal depressive symptoms and mother-child interaction assessed by the Emotional Availability Scales (EA). As hypothesized, in dyadic interaction maternal hostility decreased significantly in the PGT group, and intrusiveness decreased in both intervention groups, but especially in the PTG group. However, both interventions showed a general improvement in the quality of mother-infant interaction. They also succeeded in sustaining high maternal abstinence, treatment retention, and alleviating depressive symptoms. The findings are discussed in relation to preventing negative transgenerational interaction patterns in the high-risk dyads.

Factors associated with reported childhood depressive symptoms at age 8 and later self-reported depressive symptoms among boys at age 18.

AIMS: This study aimed to study conditions associated with depressive symptoms at ages 8 and 18 in a representative birth cohort of Finnish males. METHODS: The participants in this community-based 10-year follow-up study consisted of 2,348 boys born in 1981. At age 8, three informant sources were used: parents, teachers, and the children themselves. Depressive symptoms were established using the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI). At age 18, self-report questionnaires were used to study the boys' family factors, life events, adaptive functioning, and substance use. Depressive symptoms at age 18 were established using Beck's Depression Inventory (BDI). RESULTS: Poor adaptive functioning at age 18 was independently associated with both child and late adolescent depressive symptoms. Use of illicit drugs and somatic health problems were independently associated with later depressive symptoms. Parental divorce in early childhood independently predicted depressive symptoms both in childhood and in late adolescence. Teacher reports of child's total problems at age 8 independently predicted depressive symptoms at age 18. CONCLUSIONS: Depression in males at ages 8 and 18 is particularly associated with stressful life events in childhood, whereas late depression is associated with somatic health problems and substance use. Further population-based studies comparing conditions associated with childhood and adolescent depression are needed.