The Promise of Cilnidipine in Hypertension with Comorbidities: National Consensus Statement: National Consensus Group Comprises Cardiologists, Nephrologists, and Diabetologists from India in a National Meet at New Delhi held on 22nd May 2022.

The rapidly increasing burden of hypertension is responsible for premature deaths from cardiovascular disease (CVD), renal disease, and stroke, with a tremendous public health and financial burden. Hypertension detection, treatment, and control vary worldwide; it is still low, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). High blood pressure (BP) and CVD risk have a strong, linear, and independent association. They contribute to alarming numbers of all-cause and CVD deaths. A major culprit for increased hypertension is sympathetic activity, and further complications of hypertension are heart failure, ischemic heart disease (IHD), stroke, and renal failure. Now, antihypertensive interventions have emerged as a global public health priority to reduce BP-related morbidity and mortality. Calcium channel blockers (CCB) are highly effective vasodilators. and the most common drugs used for managing hypertension and CVD. Cilnidipine, with both L- and N-type calcium channel blocking activity, is a promising 4th generation CCB. It causes vasodilation via L-type calcium channel blockade and inhibits the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) via N-type calcium channel blockade. Cilnidipine, which acts as a dual L/N-type CCB, is linked to a reduced occurrence of pedal edema compared to amlodipine, which solely blocks L-type calcium channels. The antihypertensive properties of cilnidipine are very substantial, with low BP variability and long-acting properties. It is beneficial for hypertensive patients to deal with morning hypertension and for patients with abnormal nocturnal BP due to exaggerated sympathetic nerve activation. Besides its BP-lowering effect, it also exhibits organ protection via sympathetic nerve inhibition and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibition; it controls heart rate and proteinuria. Reno-protective, neuroprotective, and cardioprotective effects of cilnidipine have been well-documented and demonstrated.

Role of two-dimensional strain echocardiographic parameters in suspected acute coronary syndrome patients with initial non-diagnostic electrocardiogram and troponins: An observational study.

INTRODUCTION: Diagnosis of acute coronary syndrome (ACS) is often challenging especially in presence of initial normal troponins and non-specific electrocardiogram. The index study aimed at determining the diagnostic value of strain echocardiography in patients with suspected ACS but with non-diagnostic electrocardiogram and echocardiography findings. METHODS: The study was conducted on 42 patients with suspected ACS and non-diagnostic electrocardiograms, normal quantitative troponin-T levels, and left ventricular function. All patients underwent conventional and 2D-strain echocardiography followed by coronary angiography, within 24 h of admission. Patients with regional wall motion abnormalities (RWMA), valvular heart disease, suspected myocarditis, and past coronary artery disease (CAD) were excluded. RESULTS: Amongst the global strains, the global circumferential strain (GCS) was significantly reduced (p = .014) amongst those with significant CAD on angiography as opposed to global longitudinal strain (GLS) which was similar in the two groups (p = .33). The GCS/GLS ratio was also significantly reduced in patients with significant CAD compared to those with normal/mild disease on coronary angiography (p = .025). Both the parameters had good accuracy in predicting significant CAD. GCS displayed a sensitivity of 80% and a specificity of 86% at an optimal cut-off 31.5% (AUROC: .93, 95% CI: .601-1.000; p = .03), and likewise GCS/GLS ratio had a sensitivity of 80% and a specificity and 86% at a cut-off of 1.89% (AUROC: .86, 95% CI: .592-1.000; p = .049). GLS and peak atrial longitudinal strain (PALS) did not differ significantly in patients with/without significant CAD (p = .32 and .58, respectively). CONCLUSION: GCS and GCS/GLS ratio provides incremental value in comparison to GLS, PALS, and tissue Doppler indices (E/e') in patients with suspected ACS and non-diagnostic electrocardiogram and troponins. GCS at cut-off of >31.5% and GCS/GLS ratio >1.89 can reliably exclude patients with significant CAD in this setting.

The Power and Promise of Angiotensin Receptor Neprilysin Inhibitor (ARNI) in Heart Failure Management: National Consensus Statement.

;Heart failure (HF) is a huge global public health task due to morbidity, mortality, disturbed quality of life, and major economic burden. It is an area of active research and newer treatment strategies are evolving. Recently angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitor (ARNI), a class of drugs (the first agent in this class, Sacubitril-Valsartan), reduces cardiovascular mortality and morbidity in chronic HF patients with reduced left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). Positive therapeutic effects have led to a decrease in cardiovascular mortality and HF hospitalizations (HFH), with a favorable safety profile, and have been documented in several clinical studies with an unquestionable survival benefit with ARNI, Sacubitril-Valsartan. This consensus statement of the Indian group of experts in cardiology, nephrology, and diabetes provides a comprehensive review of the power and promise of ARNI in HF management and an evidence-based appraisal of the use of ARNI as an essential treatment strategy for HF patients in clinical practice. Consensus in this review favors an early utility of Sacubitril-Valsartan in patients with HF with reduced EF (HFrEF), regardless of the previous therapy being given. A lower rate of hospitalizations for HF with Sacubitril-Valsartan in HF patients with preserved EF who are phenotypically heterogeneous suggests possible benefits of ARNI in patients having 40-50% of LVEF, frequent subtle systolic dysfunction, and higher hospitalization risk.

Role of Iron Therapy in Heart Failure: A Consensus Statement from India.

Iron deficiency (ID) with or without anemia is frequently observed in patients with heart failure (HF). Uncorrected ID is associated with higher hospitalization and mortality in patients with acute HF (AHF) and chronic HF (CHF). Hence, in addition to chronic renal insufficiency, anemia, and diabetes, ID appears as a novel comorbidity and a treatment target of CHF. Intravenous (IV) ferric carboxymaltose (FCM) reduces the hospitalization risk due to HF worsening and improves functional capacity and quality of life (QOL) in HF patients. The current consensus document provides criteria, an expert opinion on the diagnosis of ID in HF, patient profiles for IV FCM, and correct administration and monitoring of such patients.

Angiotensin Receptor-Neprilysin Inhibitor Therapy and Cardiac Remodeling in Heart Failure: Consensus Statement from India.

Adverse cardiac remodeling refers to progressive structural and functional modifications in the heart because of increased wall stress in the myocardium, loss of viable myocardium, and neurohormonal stimulation. The guideline-directed medical therapy for Heart failure (HF) includes Angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitor (ARNI) (sacubitril/valsartan), ß-blockers, sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors, and mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists (MRA). ARNI is under-prescribed in India despite its attractive safety and efficacy profile. Therefore, the consensus discusses objectives and topics related to ARNI in the management of cardiac remodeling, and experts shared their views on the early timely intervention of effective dosage of ARNI to improve the diagnosis and enhance mortality and morbidity benefits in cardiac reverse remodeling (CRR).

Prolapsing giant right atrial myxoma in a young male presenting as pulmonary embolism.

A 22-year male presented with complaints of dyspnea. Multimodality imaging revealed a polypoidal right atrial mass with submassive pulmonary embolism. The patient underwent urgent surgery. The pathological examination confirmed it as cardiac myxoma. Cardiac myxoma, a most common primary cardiac tumor, is commonly found in the left atrium. The right atrium is an uncommon site and the usual mode of presentation is the tumor or thrombus embolization to the pulmonary circulation.

Role of handgrip strength testing in pre-anaesthetic check-up: A prospective cross-sectional study.

Background and Aims: Frailty has been known to be associated with postoperative adverse events and longer hospital length of stay (LOS). Hand grip strength (HGS) is one of the parameters of measuring frailty. The aim of the study was to correlate preoperative handgrip strength and 30-day outcome of patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. It also aimed to evaluate the role of the standard preoperative variables like metabolic equivalents, revised cardiac risk index (RCRI), serum albumin, and serum creatinine along with their association with HGS testing in determining the postoperative outcome in surgical patients. Material and Methods: This prospective observational study included 149 American Society of Anesthesiologists class III/IV patients presenting for major abdominal surgery. A mean of three measurements of dominant HGS using Camry hand dynamometer was measured. The patients were divided into groups: weak, normal, and strong depending on grip strength. Patients were followed for 30 days and postoperative outcome in terms of ventilatory support, admission to intensive care unit, cardiac complications, in-hospital mortality, and LOS were recorded. Observational data obtained were reported as mean value and analyzed using Student's t-test or Wilcoxon/Mann-Whitney Rank test. Associations between RCRI, serum albumin, and LOS with HGS were evaluated using logistic regression. Results: The hospital LOS was significantly longer in patients with weak HGS (15.11 ± 11.03 days versus 10 ± 5.71 days, P = 0.001). Patients with weak HGS had significantly lower mean serum albumin levels compared to normal HGS (P = 0.0001) and a statistically significant RCRI score (P = 0.013). Conclusion: HGS can be used as a preoperative test in predicting hospital LOS after major surgery.

Admission Serum Chloride Levels as Predictor of Stay Duration in Acute Decompensated Heart Failure.

OBJECTIVE: Recent studies have shown that lower serum chloride is associated with diuretic resistance and increased mortality in heart failure. Impact of lower admission chloride on duration of stay in acute decompensated heart failure (ADHF) has not been studied previously. METHODS: In this retrospective analysis, we studied the effect of admission serum chloride on the duration of hospital stay in patients admitted with ADHF. A total of 167 patients were studied. Serum chloride levels were divided into tertiles - <96 meq/L (tertile 1), 96-101 meq/L (tertile 2), and >101 meq/L (tertile 3) based on the distribution of serum chloride levels in our patients. RESULTS: The median lengths of hospital stay in tertiles 1, 2, and 3 were 8(Interquartile range :6 -11), 7 (Interquartile range :5 -10.50), and 6 days(Interquartile range :4.25 - 8), respectively (p = 0.011). Admission serum chloride levels were inversely associated with duration of stay (R2 linear = 0.074, p = 0.001). On multiple linear regression analysis, serum chloride remained independent predictor of increased hospital stay (p=0.003) while association with serum sodium was not significant (p=0.07). 1 unit increase in chloride level was associated with 1.3% (p=0.003) decrease in hospital stay (95% CI: 2.2% to 0.5%). CONCLUSION: This retrospective analysis suggests that admission serum chloride levels are independently and inversely associated with increased duration of stay. This is independent of admission sodium levels. Thus serum chloride, rather than sodium, is an important poor prognostic marker in heart failure patients.

Incremental benefit of three-dimensional transthoracic echocardiography in the assessment of left atrial appendage aneurysm leading to severe extrinsic compression of a coronary artery.

Left atrial appendage aneurysm (LAA AN) is a rare disease entity, which can be congenital or acquired in nature. We report an adult patient with LAA AN presenting with anginal chest pain in whom live/real time three-dimensional transthoracic echocardiography (3DTTE) provided incremental value over the two-dimensional (2D) technique in providing a more comprehensive assessment of the lesion. A literature review of the salient features of LAA AN is also provided in a tabular form.

Incremental Value of Live/Real Time Three-Dimensional over Two-Dimensional Transesophageal Echocardiography in the Assessment of Atrial Septal Pouch.

An atrial septal pouch (ASP) results from partial fusion of the septum primum and the septum secundum, and depending on the site of fusion, the pouch can be left-sided (LASP) or right-sided (RASP). LASPs have been described in association with thrombi found in patients admitted with acute strokes, raising awareness of its potential cardioembolic role, especially in those with no other clearly identifiable embolic source. We retrospectively studied 39 patients in whom the presence of an ASP had been identified by three-dimensional transesophageal echocardiography (3DTEE) and who had a two-dimensional transesophageal echocardiogram (2DTEE) performed during the same clinical encounter. The incremental value provided by 3DTEE over 2DTEE included the detection of six ASPs not found by 2DTEE; the detection of two ASPs in the same subject (in four patients) not identified by 2DTEE; larger ASP measurements of length and height in over 80% of the cases; and measurement of the ASP width (elevational axis) for the calculation of the area of the ASP opening, because of its unique capability to view the pouch en face. In addition, the volume of ASP and of the echogenic masses contained in the ASP (four of 39 patients) could be calculated by 3DTEE, which is a superior parameter of size characterization when compared to individual dimensions. One of these patients who presented with ischemic stroke diagnosed by magnetic resonance imaging had a large (>2 cm) mass in a LASP, with echolucencies similar to those seen in thrombi and associated with clot lysis and resolution. This mass completely disappeared on anticoagulant therapy lending credence that it was most likely a thrombus. There was no history of stroke or any other type of embolic event in the other three patients with masses in ASP. In conclusion, this retrospective study highlights the incremental value of 3DTEE over 2DTEE in the comprehensive assessment and characterization of ASPs, which can aid in the clarification of their role in cryptogenic stroke patients.

Cardiac device-related invasive aspergilloma assessed by live/real time three-dimensional transthoracic echocardiography.

Cardiac device-related infection caused by Aspergillus species is a rare finding associated with high mortality. Prompt recognition and treatment is imperative, but difficult as blood cultures are often negative and diagnosis requires a high index of suspicion. Live/real time three-dimensional transthoracic echocardiography (3DTTE) provides incremental knowledge in the characterization of valvular vegetations. Here, we provide a detailed description of an invasive cardiac device-related infection caused by Aspergillus fumigatus using 3DTTE. Findings described here highlight the role for 3DTTE in the prompt diagnosis of invasive cardiac Aspergillus infections as well as surgical planning in such cases.

An 85-Year-Old Man with Fever, Dyspnea, and Dry Cough Diagnosed with Idiopathic Hypereosinophilic Syndrome, Successfully Treated with High-Dose Corticosteroids.

BACKGROUND Idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndrome (I-HES) is a rare disease diagnosed as absolute eosinophil count >1500 cells/µl and end-organ involvement attributable to tissue eosinophilia with no secondary cause of underlying eosinophilia. The mean age of presentation for I-HES is 44 years. The skin, lungs, and gastrointestinal (GI) system are most common sites of presenting manifestations, including fatigue, cough, dyspnea, myalgias, angioedema, rash, fever, nausea, and diarrhea. Although cardiac and neurologic symptoms are less common at presentation, they can be life-threatening. CASE REPORT We report the case of an 85-year-old man who presented with fever, malaise, and loss of appetite for 3 weeks, followed by dyspnea and dry cough for 2 weeks. His absolute eosinophil count was 9000 cells/µl, which was not responding to empirical antibiotic therapy, with worsening of symptoms, suggesting a non-infective origin. He was then extensively evaluated to establish underlying an etiology for specific treatment, which was negative for common causes like atypical infections, malignancy, and autoimmune disorders. He was then started on corticosteroid therapy to overcome an exaggerated immune response and reduce inflammation-related injury, to which he responded well. On follow-up, hypereosinophilia was fully cured, with reversal of end-organ involvement including myocarditis and pneumonitis. CONCLUSIONS This report shows that idiopathic HES can present with various clinical features and that accurate diagnosis, excluding known causes of eosinophilia, and early management are essential to prevent long-term organ damage. Our patient responded to prompt treatment with high-dose corticosteroids.

Clinical profile and outcome of cardiac manifestations in patients presenting with multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) can cause significant morbidity and mortality in children. This study was conducted to assess the pattern and outcome of cardiac abnormalities in MIS-C. This retrospective study was conducted in children with MIS-C between 1 month and 18 years. We enrolled 53 children with a mean age of 7.78 ± 4.62 years. Overall, 35.8% of children with MIS-C had cardiac manifestations in the form of coronary artery abnormalities (CAAs) or left ventricular (LV) dysfunction. Younger age (P 0.009) and high C-reactive protein at admission (P = 0.001) were significant predictors of cardiac involvement. CAAs were seen in 11.3% of children. On follow-up, 67% and 83% of children showed regression of CAA at 1 and 6 months, respectively. 24.5% of patients had presented with LV dysfunction. LV ejection fraction improved significantly at 1 month (P = 0.002) and 6 months (P = 0.001). Cardiac outcomes in MIS-C were favorable with timely identification and treatment.

Clinical profile of patients with cardiac amyloidosis in India.

Limited data exists on patients with cardiac amyloidosis (CA) in India, due to underdiagnosis and late presentation. We present single centre data from 13 patients over a 4 year period with a median age of 65 years. A majority presented with symptomatic heart failure (69%) and eight patients had confirmed AL amyloidosis. At the end of the follow up period, 46% patients died, with 30% of the overall cohort dead within six months. Among the survivors, 71% continue to have NYHA grade III/IV symptoms. A suggested algorithm for earlier diagnosis in resource constrained settings is also presented.

Prevalence and predictors of lower extremity atherosclerotic disease amongst high-risk patients using ankle brachial index.

INTRODUCTION: The prevalence of lower extremity artery disease (LEAD) continues to increase worldwide. This is expected to translate into logarithmic rise in lower-limb amputations especially in the developing world. Majority of patients suffering from LEAD remain asymptomatic until late and are vulnerable to limb-threatening complications unless actively screened and treated. METHODS: This was a prospective, single-center, observational study to determine the prevalence and predictors of LEAD. Patients with known atherosclerotic vascular disease (but not known LEAD) or those at risk were enrolled. All underwent ankle brachial index (ABI) measurement as per the standard protocol. A threshold of ABI ≤0.90 was taken to diagnose LEAD. RESULTS: A total of 1000 patients were enrolled. The mean age of the group was 61.4 ± 10.0 years and the prevalence of LEAD was 10.2%. Amongst those who had LEAD, the majority of patients (69.6%) had no symptoms. The prevalence of LEAD in diabetic population in our study was 13.2% and it was 30.9% in coronary artery disease patients . Factors independently linked to LEAD on regression analysis included advanced age, presence of diabetes, smoking history, lower serum HDL and a lower ejection fraction. CONCLUSIONS: The vast majority of patients suffering from LEAD are asymptomatic. Early diagnoses and institution of appropriate medical and physical therapy can prevent excess morbidity and mortality due to LEAD. Factors independently linked to LEAD are advanced age, presence of diabetes, smoking history, lower serum HDL and a lower ejection fraction. The presence of either of these should signal undertaking of appropriate steps to unmask underlying LEAD.

Pacemaker lead endocarditis.

A case of permanent pacemaker lead endocarditis staphylococcal aureus related is described and management is discussed.

Effect of environment and season on acute decompensated heart failure: Data from low-to middle-income country.

OBJECTIVES: The environmental effect in heart failure (HF) patients is well established. However, the data is limited from low-to middle-income countries like India. This study determined the impact of environment on acute decompensated HF (ADHF) admissions and mortality in India. METHODS: Retrospectively, the data of all HF patients admitted between April 2017 and March 2019 was accessed through electronic hospital records. Simultaneously, the environmental-related data was collected from the central pollution control board. RESULTS: The study included 4561 patients of ADHF. The peak of monthly ADHF events (admission and mortality) was observed during the chilly month (January) while the lowest rates were observed in summer months (May-June). The most significant factor correlating inversely with the monthly ADHF admission (r = -0.78, p = 0.003) and mortality (r = -0.65, p = 0.004) was the maximum air temperature, and it was found to be the independent predictor for both ADHF mortality [t = -2.78, ß = -0.84; 95%CI(-6.0 to -0.6), p = 0.021] and admission [t = -4.83, ß = -0.91; 95%CI(-19.8 to -6.9), p = 0.001]. The above correlation was better seen in the elderly subset and male gender. Humidity and the air pollution attributes did not have a significant correlation with ADHF admission or mortality. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, even in low-to middle-income country like India, a periodic effect of season was demonstrated for ADHF mortality and admission, with a peak in ADHF events noted during winter months especially in the regions having extremes of seasons. Air pollution could not affect the ADHF outcome for which further studies are needed.

An Optimized Machine Learning Model Accurately Predicts In-Hospital Outcomes at Admission to a Cardiac Unit.

Risk stratification at the time of hospital admission is of paramount significance in triaging the patients and providing timely care. In the present study, we aim at predicting multiple clinical outcomes using the data recorded during admission to a cardiac care unit via an optimized machine learning method. This study involves a total of 11,498 patients admitted to a cardiac care unit over two years. Patient demographics, admission type (emergency or outpatient), patient history, lab tests, and comorbidities were used to predict various outcomes. We employed a fully connected neural network architecture and optimized the models for various subsets of input features. Using 10-fold cross-validation, our optimized machine learning model predicted mortality with a mean area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) of 0.967 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.963-0.972), heart failure AUC of 0.838 (CI: 0.825-0.851), ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction AUC of 0.832 (CI: 0.821-0.842), pulmonary embolism AUC of 0.802 (CI: 0.764-0.84), and estimated the duration of stay (DOS) with a mean absolute error of 2.543 days (CI: 2.499-2.586) of data with a mean and median DOS of 6.35 and 5.0 days, respectively. Further, we objectively quantified the importance of each feature and its correlation with the clinical assessment of the corresponding outcome. The proposed method accurately predicts various cardiac outcomes and can be used as a clinical decision support system to provide timely care and optimize hospital resources.

The incidence and clinical impact of thrombotic events in hospitalized COVID-2019 illness.

BACKGROUND: Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) infection and thrombosis are of great clinical importance as this association has shown to increase mortality. We intend to estimate the incidence of thrombotic events (TE) and their impact on clinical outcomes in hospitalized COVID-19 patients. METHODS: This was an analytical cross-sectional study. The study population comprised of hospitalized COVID-19 patients between 1st March 2021 and 31st May 2021. The clinico-demographic data, thrombotic events, and clinical outcomes were collected from electronic health records. RESULTS: A total of 1274 patients were analyzed. The median age of the study population was 56 years (IQR: 44-66 years). The estimated incidence of TE was 5.8% (N.=74); 60.8% of these TE occurred in patients having severe/critical COVID-19 illness and 70.3% of TE occurred in patients in the intensive care unit. Venous events (3.9%) were common compared to arterial events(1.9%). On multivariate logistic regression analysis, total leukocyte count, C-reactive protein, and D-dimer level were found to be the independent predictors of having TE. Receiver operator curve revealed a cut-off point of 872.5 DDU µg/L for D-dimer level (sensitivity: 67.6% and specificity: 72.1%; P<0.001, area under curve 0.78) for predicting TE. Patients with TE had significantly higher mortality compared to those without TE (58.1% vs. 22.2%; P<0.001); and the presence of TE (OR=2.94; 95% CI:1.7-5.1, P<0.001) was found to be the independent predictor of mortality. CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of TE is high for hospitalized COVID-19 patients and it is even higher in severe/critical COVID illness. Its presence has shown to double the mortality compared to those without it.

Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome II presenting paradoxically as Takotsubo cardiomyopathy: a case report and reappraisal of pathophysiology.

BACKGROUND: Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (TCM) is a rare disease entity characterized by acute, non-ischemic, reversible myocardial dysfunction that mimics acute myocardial infarction. Activation and excessive outflow of sympathetic nervous system are believed to be central to the figure in the disease pathogenesis. Adrenocortical hormones potentiate the systemic actions of sympathetic nervous system and accordingly are essential for regulation of myocardial function. We present an unusual case of a middle-aged woman with primary adrenal insufficiency who presented paradoxically with TCM. CASE PRESENTATION: A 50-year-old woman with past history of hypothyroidism presented to emergency department with history of acute chest pain and syncope. There was no significant drug history or history of an emotional or physical stimulus prior to admission. Prominent pigmentation over the tongue and skin creases of hands were noted. On presentation, she was in shock and had ventricular tachycardia which required electrical cardioversion. The subsequent electrocardiogram demonstrated diffuse T-wave inversions with prolonged QTC. There was apical hypokinesia on echocardiogram, and cardiac biomarkers were elevated. There was persistent inotropic requirement. She had marked postural symptoms, and a postural blood pressure drop of 50 mm Hg was present. Initial laboratory parameters were significant for hyperkalemia (7.8 mEq/L) and hyponatremia (128 mEq/L). These findings prompted evaluation for adrenal insufficiency which was confirmed with appropriate tests. Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome II was thus diagnosed based on the above findings. Coronary angiography revealed normal coronaries. The diagnoses of TCM was established in accordance with the International Takotsubo Diagnostic Criteria. She was started on stress dose steroid replacement therapy and improved dramatically. At one month of follow-up, the patient is asymptomatic, and there was normalization of her left ventricular function. CONCLUSIONS: Intricate relationship and interplay exist between the steroid hormones and catecholamines in the pathogenesis of TCM. Steroid hormones not only potentiate the actions of catecholamines, but they also regulate and channelize catecholaminergic actions preventing their deleterious effects on the cardiac tissue. Hence, both steroid deficiency and exogenous steroid replacement may precipitate TCM. Evidence from more such cases and larger perspective studies in future will further improve our understanding of this complex disease process and its myriad associations.