Comprehensive single cell mRNA profiling reveals a detailed roadmap for pancreatic endocrinogenesis.

Deciphering mechanisms of endocrine cell induction, specification and lineage allocation in vivo will provide valuable insights into how the islets of Langerhans are generated. Currently, it is ill defined how endocrine progenitors segregate into different endocrine subtypes during development. Here, we generated a novel neurogenin 3 (Ngn3)-Venus fusion (NVF) reporter mouse line, that closely mirrors the transient endogenous Ngn3 protein expression. To define an in vivo roadmap of endocrinogenesis, we performed single cell RNA sequencing of 36,351 pancreatic epithelial and NVF+ cells during secondary transition. This allowed Ngn3low endocrine progenitors, Ngn3high endocrine precursors, Fev+ endocrine lineage and hormone+ endocrine subtypes to be distinguished and time-resolved, and molecular programs during the step-wise lineage restriction steps to be delineated. Strikingly, we identified 58 novel signature genes that show the same transient expression dynamics as Ngn3 in the 7260 profiled Ngn3-expressing cells. The differential expression of these genes in endocrine precursors associated with their cell-fate allocation towards distinct endocrine cell types. Thus, the generation of an accurately regulated NVF reporter allowed us to temporally resolve endocrine lineage development to provide a fine-grained single cell molecular profile of endocrinogenesis in vivo.

Generation of a Novel Nkx6-1 Venus Fusion Reporter Mouse Line.

Nkx6-1 is a member of the Nkx family of homeodomain transcription factors (TFs) that regulates motor neuron development, neuron specification and pancreatic endocrine and ß-cell differentiation. To facilitate the isolation and tracking of Nkx6-1-expressing cells, we have generated a novel Nkx6-1 Venus fusion (Nkx6-1-VF) reporter allele. The Nkx6-1-VF knock-in reporter is regulated by endogenous cis-regulatory elements of Nkx6-1 and the fluorescent protein fusion does not interfere with the TF function, as homozygous mice are viable and fertile. The nuclear localization of Nkx6-1-VF protein reflects the endogenous Nkx6-1 protein distribution. During embryonic pancreas development, the reporter protein marks the pancreatic ductal progenitors and the endocrine lineage, but is absent in the exocrine compartment. As expected, the levels of Nkx6-1-VF reporter are upregulated upon ß-cell differentiation during the major wave of endocrinogenesis. In the adult islets of Langerhans, the reporter protein is exclusively found in insulin-secreting ß-cells. Importantly, the Venus reporter activities allow successful tracking of ß-cells in live-cell imaging and their specific isolation by flow sorting. In summary, the generation of the Nkx6-1-VF reporter line reflects the expression pattern and dynamics of the endogenous protein and thus provides a unique tool to study the spatio-temporal expression pattern of this TF during organ development and enables isolation and tracking of Nkx6-1-expressing cells such as pancreatic ß-cells, but also neurons and motor neurons in health and disease.

Synaptotagmin-13 Is a Neuroendocrine Marker in Brain, Intestine and Pancreas.

Synaptotagmin-13 (Syt13) is an atypical member of the vesicle trafficking synaptotagmin protein family. The expression pattern and the biological function of this Ca2+-independent protein are not well resolved. Here, we have generated a novel Syt13-Venus fusion (Syt13-VF) fluorescence reporter allele to track and isolate tissues and cells expressing Syt13 protein. The reporter allele is regulated by endogenous cis-regulatory elements of Syt13 and the fusion protein follows an identical expression pattern of the endogenous Syt13 protein. The homozygous reporter mice are viable and fertile. We identify the expression of the Syt13-VF reporter in different regions of the brain with high expression in tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-expressing and oxytocin-producing neuroendocrine cells. Moreover, Syt13-VF is highly restricted to all enteroendocrine cells in the adult intestine that can be traced in live imaging. Finally, Syt13-VF protein is expressed in the pancreatic endocrine lineage, allowing their specific isolation by flow sorting. These findings demonstrate high expression levels of Syt13 in the endocrine lineages in three major organs harboring these secretory cells. Collectively, the Syt13-VF reporter mouse line provides a unique and reliable tool to dissect the spatio-temporal expression pattern of Syt13 and enables isolation of Syt13-expressing cells that will aid in deciphering the molecular functions of this protein in the neuroendocrine system.

ß-Cell Maturation and Identity in Health and Disease.

The exponential increase of patients with diabetes mellitus urges for novel therapeutic strategies to reduce the socioeconomic burden of this disease. The loss or dysfunction of insulin-producing ß-cells, in patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes respectively, put these cells at the center of the disease initiation and progression. Therefore, major efforts have been taken to restore the ß-cell mass by cell-replacement or regeneration approaches. Implementing novel therapies requires deciphering the developmental mechanisms that generate ß-cells and determine the acquisition of their physiological phenotype. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of the mechanisms that coordinate the postnatal maturation of ß-cells and define their functional identity. Furthermore, we discuss different routes by which ß-cells lose their features and functionality in type 1 and 2 diabetic conditions. We then focus on potential mechanisms to restore the functionality of those ß-cell populations that have lost their functional phenotype. Finally, we discuss the recent progress and remaining challenges facing the generation of functional mature ß-cells from stem cells for cell-replacement therapy for diabetes treatment.

Synaptotagmin-13 orchestrates pancreatic endocrine cell egression and islet morphogenesis.

During pancreas development endocrine cells leave the ductal epithelium to form the islets of Langerhans, but the morphogenetic mechanisms are incompletely understood. Here, we identify the Ca2+-independent atypical Synaptotagmin-13 (Syt13) as a key regulator of endocrine cell egression and islet formation. We detect specific upregulation of the Syt13 gene and encoded protein in endocrine precursors and the respective lineage during islet formation. The Syt13 protein is localized to the apical membrane of endocrine precursors and to the front domain of egressing endocrine cells, marking a previously unidentified apical-basal to front-rear repolarization during endocrine precursor cell egression. Knockout of Syt13 impairs endocrine cell egression and skews the α-to-ß-cell ratio. Mechanistically, Syt13 is a vesicle trafficking protein, transported via the microtubule cytoskeleton, and interacts with phosphatidylinositol phospholipids for polarized localization. By internalizing a subset of plasma membrane proteins at the front domain, including α6ß4 integrins, Syt13 modulates cell-matrix adhesion and allows efficient endocrine cell egression. Altogether, these findings uncover an unexpected role for Syt13 as a morphogenetic driver of endocrinogenesis and islet formation.

CD81 marks immature and dedifferentiated pancreatic ß-cells.

OBJECTIVE: Islets of Langerhans contain heterogeneous populations of insulin-producing ß-cells. Surface markers and respective antibodies for isolation, tracking, and analysis are urgently needed to study ß-cell heterogeneity and explore the mechanisms to harness the regenerative potential of immature ß-cells. METHODS: We performed single-cell mRNA profiling of early postnatal mouse islets and re-analyzed several single-cell mRNA sequencing datasets from mouse and human pancreas and islets. We used mouse primary islets, iPSC-derived endocrine cells, Min6 insulinoma, and human EndoC-ßH1 ß-cell lines and performed FAC sorting, Western blotting, and imaging to support and complement the findings from the data analyses. RESULTS: We found that all endocrine cell types expressed the cluster of differentiation 81 (CD81) during pancreas development, but the expression levels of this protein were gradually reduced in ß-cells during postnatal maturation. Single-cell gene expression profiling and high-resolution imaging revealed an immature signature of ß-cells expressing high levels of CD81 (CD81high) compared to a more mature population expressing no or low levels of this protein (CD81low/-). Analysis of ß-cells from different diabetic mouse models and in vitro ß-cell stress assays indicated an upregulation of CD81 expression levels in stressed and dedifferentiated ß-cells. Similarly, CD81 was upregulated and marked stressed human ß-cells in vitro. CONCLUSIONS: We identified CD81 as a novel surface marker that labels immature, stressed, and dedifferentiated ß-cells in the adult mouse and human islets. This novel surface marker will allow us to better study ß-cell heterogeneity in healthy subjects and diabetes progression.

A point mutation in the Pdia6 gene results in loss of pancreatic ß-cell identity causing overt diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: Protein disulfide isomerases (PDIs) are oxidoreductases that are involved in catalyzing the formation and rearrangement of disulfide bonds during protein folding. One of the PDI members is the PDI-associated 6 (PDIA6) protein, which has been shown to play a vital role in ß-cell dysfunction and diabetes. However, very little is known about the function of this protein in ß-cells in vivo. This study aimed to describe the consequences of a point mutation in Pdia6 on ß-cell development and function. METHODS: We generated an ENU mouse model carrying a missense mutation (Phe175Ser) in the second thioredoxin domain of the Pdia6 gene. Using biochemical and molecular tools, we determined the effects of the mutation on the ß-cell development at embryonic day (E)18.5 and ß-cell identity as well as function at postnatal stages. RESULTS: Mice homozygous for the Phe175Ser (F175S) mutation were mildly hyperglycemic at weaning and subsequently became hypoinsulinemic and overtly diabetic at the adult stage. Although no developmental phenotype was detected during embryogenesis, mutant mice displayed reduced insulin-expressing ß-cells at P14 and P21 without any changes in the rate of cell death and proliferation. Further analysis revealed an increase in BiP and the PDI family member PDIA4, but without any concomitant apoptosis and cell death. Instead, the expression of prominent markers of ß-cell maturation and function, such as Ins2, Mafa, and Slc2a2, along with increased expression of α-cell markers, Mafb, and glucagon was observed in adult mice, suggesting loss of ß-cell identity. CONCLUSIONS: The results demonstrate that a global Pdia6 mutation renders mice hypoinsulinemic and hyperglycemic. This occurs due to the loss of pancreatic ß-cell function and identity, suggesting a critical role of PDIA6 specifically for ß-cells.

Targeted pharmacological therapy restores ß-cell function for diabetes remission.

Dedifferentiation of insulin-secreting ß cells in the islets of Langerhans has been proposed to be a major mechanism of ß-cell dysfunction. Whether dedifferentiated ß cells can be targeted by pharmacological intervention for diabetes remission, and ways in which this could be accomplished, are unknown as yet. Here we report the use of streptozotocin-induced diabetes to study ß-cell dedifferentiation in mice. Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) of islets identified markers and pathways associated with ß-cell dedifferentiation and dysfunction. Single and combinatorial pharmacology further show that insulin treatment triggers insulin receptor pathway activation in ß cells and restores maturation and function for diabetes remission. Additional ß-cell selective delivery of oestrogen by Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1-oestrogen conjugate) decreases daily insulin requirements by 60%, triggers oestrogen-specific activation of the endoplasmic-reticulum-associated protein degradation system, and further increases ß-cell survival and regeneration. GLP-1-oestrogen also protects human ß cells against cytokine-induced dysfunction. This study not only describes mechanisms of ß-cell dedifferentiation and regeneration, but also reveals pharmacological entry points to target dedifferentiated ß cells for diabetes remission.

Establishment of a high-resolution 3D modeling system for studying pancreatic epithelial cell biology in vitro.

OBJECTIVE: Translation of basic research from bench-to-bedside relies on a better understanding of similarities and differences between mouse and human cell biology, tissue formation, and organogenesis. Thus, establishing ex vivo modeling systems of mouse and human pancreas development will help not only to understand evolutionary conserved mechanisms of differentiation and morphogenesis but also to understand pathomechanisms of disease and design strategies for tissue engineering. METHODS: Here, we established a simple and reproducible Matrigel-based three-dimensional (3D) cyst culture model system of mouse and human pancreatic progenitors (PPs) to study pancreatic epithelialization and endocrinogenesis ex vivo. In addition, we reanalyzed previously reported single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) of mouse and human pancreatic lineages to obtain a comprehensive picture of differential expression of key transcription factors (TFs), cell-cell adhesion molecules and cell polarity components in PPs during endocrinogenesis. RESULTS: We generated mouse and human polarized pancreatic epithelial cysts derived from PPs. This system allowed to monitor establishment of pancreatic epithelial polarity and lumen formation in cellular and sub-cellular resolution in a dynamic time-resolved fashion. Furthermore, both mouse and human pancreatic cysts were able to differentiate towards the endocrine fate. This differentiation system together with scRNA-seq analysis revealed how apical-basal polarity and tight and adherens junctions change during endocrine differentiation. CONCLUSIONS: We have established a simple 3D pancreatic cyst culture system that allows to tempo-spatial resolve cellular and subcellular processes on the mechanistical level, which is otherwise not possible in vivo.