The transition from a phytopathogenic smut ancestor to an anamorphic biocontrol agent deciphered by comparative whole-genome analysis.

Pseudozyma flocculosa is related to the model plant pathogen Ustilago maydis yet is not a phytopathogen but rather a biocontrol agent of powdery mildews; this relationship makes it unique for the study of the evolution of plant pathogenicity factors. The P. flocculosa genome of ~23 Mb includes 6877 predicted protein coding genes. Genome features, including hallmarks of pathogenicity, are very similar in P. flocculosa and U. maydis, Sporisorium reilianum, and Ustilago hordei. Furthermore, P. flocculosa, a strict anamorph, revealed conserved and seemingly intact mating-type and meiosis loci typical of Ustilaginales. By contrast, we observed the loss of a specific subset of candidate secreted effector proteins reported to influence virulence in U. maydis as the singular divergence that could explain its nonpathogenic nature. These results suggest that P. flocculosa could have once been a virulent smut fungus that lost the specific effectors necessary for host compatibility. Interestingly, the biocontrol agent appears to have acquired genes encoding secreted proteins not found in the compared Ustilaginales, including necrosis-inducing-Phytophthora-protein- and Lysin-motif- containing proteins believed to have direct relevance to its lifestyle. The genome sequence should contribute to new insights into the subtle genetic differences that can lead to drastic changes in fungal pathogen lifestyles.

Identification of a biosynthesis gene cluster for flocculosin a cellobiose lipid produced by the biocontrol agent Pseudozyma flocculosa.

Flocculosin is an antifungal glycolipid produced by the biocontrol fungus Pseudozyma flocculosa. It consists of cellobiose, O-glycosidically linked to 3,15,16-trihydroxypalmitic acid. The sugar moiety is acylated with 2-hydroxy-octanoic acid and acetylated at two positions. Here we describe a gene cluster comprising 11 genes that are necessary for the biosynthesis of flocculosin. We compared the cluster with the biosynthesis gene cluster for the highly similar glycolipid ustilagic acid (UA) produced by the phytopathogenic fungus Ustilago maydis. In contrast to the cluster of U. maydis, the flocculosin biosynthesis cluster contains an additional gene encoding an acetyl-transferase and is lacking a gene homologous to the α-hydroxylase Ahd1 necessary for UA hydroxylation. The functions of three acyl/acetyl-transferase genes (Fat1, Fat2 and Fat3) including the additional acetyl-transferase were studied by complementing the corresponding U. maydis mutants. While P. flocculosa Fat1 and Fat3 are homologous to Uat1 in U. maydis, Fat2 shares 64% identity to Uat2, a protein involved in UA biosynthesis but with so far unknown function. By genetic and mass spectrometric analysis, we show that Uat2 and Fat2 are necessary for acetylation of the corresponding glycolipid. These results bring unique insights into the biocontrol properties of P. flocculosa and opportunities for enhancing its activity.

Beta hydroxylation of glycolipids from Ustilago maydis and Pseudozyma flocculosa by an NADPH-dependent ß-hydroxylase.

Flocculosin and ustilagic acid (UA), two highly similar antifungal cellobiose lipids, are respectively produced by Pseudozyma flocculosa, a biocontrol agent, and Ustilago maydis, a plant pathogen. Both glycolipids contain a short-chain fatty acid hydroxylated at the ß position but differ in the long fatty acid, which is hydroxylated at the α position in UA and at the ß position in flocculosin. In both organisms, the biosynthesis genes are arranged in large clusters. The functions of most genes have already been characterized, but those of the P. flocculosa fhd1 gene and its homolog from U. maydis, uhd1, have remained undefined. The deduced amino acid sequences of these genes show homology to those of short-chain dehydrogenases and reductases (SDR). We disrupted the uhd1 gene in U. maydis and analyzed the secreted UA. uhd1 deletion strains produced UA lacking the ß-hydroxyl group of the short-chain fatty acid. To analyze the function of P. flocculosa Fhd1, the corresponding gene was used to complement U. maydis Δuhd1 mutants. Fhd1 was able to restore wild-type UA production, indicating that Fhd1 is responsible for ß hydroxylation of the flocculosin short-chain fatty acid. We also investigated a P. flocculosa homolog of the U. maydis long-chain fatty-acid alpha hydroxylase Ahd1. The P. flocculosa ahd1 gene, which does not reside in the flocculosin gene cluster, was introduced into U. maydis Δahd1 mutant strains. P. flocculosa Ahd1 neither complemented the U. maydis Δahd1 phenotype nor resulted in the production of ß-hydroxylated UA. This suggests that P. flocculosa Ahd1 is not involved in flocculosin hydroxylation.

Activation of the ustilagic acid biosynthesis gene cluster in Ustilago maydis by the C2H2 zinc finger transcription factor Rua1.

The phytopathogenic basidiomycetous fungus Ustilago maydis secretes, under conditions of nitrogen starvation, large amounts of the biosurfactant ustilagic acid (UA). This secreted cellobiose glycolipid is toxic for many microorganisms and confers biocontrol activity to U. maydis. Recently, a large gene cluster that is responsible for UA biosynthesis was identified. Here, we show that expression of all cluster genes depends on Rua1, a nuclear protein of the C(2)H(2) zinc finger family, whose gene is located within the gene cluster. While deletion of rua1 results in complete loss of UA production, overexpression of rua1 promotes increased UA synthesis even in the presence of a good nitrogen source. Bioinformatic analysis allowed us to identify a conserved sequence element that is present in the promoters of all structural genes involved in UA biosynthesis. Deletion analysis of several promoters within the cluster revealed that this DNA element serves as an upstream activating sequence (UAS) and mediates Rua1-dependent expression. We used the yeast one-hybrid system to demonstrate specific recognition of this DNA element by Rua1. Introduction of nucleotide exchanges into the consensus sequence interfered with Rua1-dependent activation, suggesting that this sequence element acts as a direct binding site for Rua1.

NADIR: A Non-Interventional Study on the Prophylaxis of Chemotherapy-Induced Neutropenia Using Lipegfilgrastim - First Interim Analysis.

BACKGROUND: The non-interventional study (NIS) NADIR was designed to assess the effectiveness and safety of lipegfilgrastim, a novel glycopegylated granulocyte-colony stimulating factor, in reducing the risk of both febrile and severe neutropenia. METHODS: Here, the interim analysis of NIS Nadir performed under real-world conditions at 80 oncology practices across Germany is reported. For a patient to be included, lipegfilgrastim at a subcutaneous single dose of 6 mg had to be administered during at least 1 cycle of the chemotherapy under consideration. RESULTS: The interim analysis included 224 patients. Median patient age was 61.1 years (interquartile range 51.2-70.2 years). Main tumor type was breast cancer followed by lung cancer, and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (46.0, 13.4, and 10.7%, respectively). When lipegfilgrastim was given as primary prophylaxis, no patient developed febrile neutropenia (FN). 1.3% of patients developed FN when primary prophylaxis was withheld. Only 68.6% of patients undergoing chemotherapy and at high risk (> 20%) of developing FN were treated with lipegfilgrastim during the first cycle, exposing disparity between real-world practices and current treatment guidelines. Lipegfilgrastim was well tolerated. The only grade 3/4 treatment-related adverse event was anemia in 1 patient. CONCLUSION: Lipegfilgrastim was effective and safe when administered for the prevention of chemotherapy-induced neutropenia under real-world conditions.

A biosynthetic gene cluster for a secreted cellobiose lipid with antifungal activity from Ustilago maydis.

The phytopathogenic basidiomycetous fungus Ustilago maydis secretes large amounts of the glycolipid biosurfactant ustilagic acid (UA). UA consists of 15,16-dihydroxypalmitic or 2,15,16-trihydroxypalmitic acid, which is O-glycosidically linked to cellobiose at its terminal hydroxyl group. In addition, the cellobiose moiety is acetylated and acylated with a short-chain hydroxy fatty acid. We have identified a 58 kb spanning gene cluster that contains 12 open reading frames coding for most, if not all, enzymes needed for UA biosynthesis. Using a combination of genetic and mass spectrometric analysis we were able to assign functional roles to three of the proteins encoded by the gene cluster. This allowed us to propose a biosynthesis route for UA. The Ahd1 protein belongs to the family of non-haem diiron reductases and is required for alpha-hydroxylation of palmitic acid. Two P450 monooxygenases, Cyp1 and Cyp2, catalyse terminal and subterminal hydroxylation of palmitic acid. We could demonstrate that infection of tomato leaves by the plant pathogenic fungus Botrytis cinerea is prevented by co-inoculation with wild-type U. maydis sporidia. U. maydis mutants defective in UA biosynthesis were unable to inhibit B. cinerea infection indicating that UA secretion is critical for antagonistic activity.