Defects in Galactose Metabolism and Glycoconjugate Biosynthesis in a UDP-Glucose Pyrophosphorylase-Deficient Cell Line Are Reversed by Adding Galactose to the Growth Medium.

UDP-glucose (UDP-Glc) is synthesized by UGP2-encoded UDP-Glc pyrophosphorylase (UGP) and is required for glycoconjugate biosynthesis and galactose metabolism because it is a uridyl donor for galactose-1-P (Gal1P) uridyltransferase. Chinese hamster lung fibroblasts harboring a hypomrphic UGP(G116D) variant display reduced UDP-Glc levels and cannot grow if galactose is the sole carbon source. Here, these cells were cultivated with glucose in either the absence or presence of galactose in order to investigate glycoconjugate biosynthesis and galactose metabolism. The UGP-deficient cells display < 5% control levels of UDP-Glc/UDP-Gal and > 100-fold reduction of [6-3H]galactose incorporation into UDP-[6-3H]galactose, as well as multiple deficits in glycoconjugate biosynthesis. Cultivation of these cells in the presence of galactose leads to partial restoration of UDP-Glc levels, galactose metabolism and glycoconjugate biosynthesis. The Vmax for recombinant human UGP(G116D) with Glc1P is 2000-fold less than that of the wild-type protein, and UGP(G116D) displayed a mildly elevated Km for Glc1P, but no activity of the mutant enzyme towards Gal1P was detectable. To conclude, although the mechanism behind UDP-Glc/Gal production in the UGP-deficient cells remains to be determined, the capacity of this cell line to change its glycosylation status as a function of extracellular galactose makes it a useful, reversible model with which to study different aspects of galactose metabolism and glycoconjugate biosynthesis.

A novel mode of translocation for cytolethal distending toxin.

Thermal instability in the toxin catalytic subunit may be a common property of toxins that exit the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) by exploiting the mechanism of ER-associated degradation (ERAD). The Haemophilus ducreyi cytolethal distending toxin (HdCDT) does not utilize ERAD to exit the ER, so we predicted the structural properties of its catalytic subunit (HdCdtB) would differ from other ER-translocating toxins. Here, we document the heat-stable properties of HdCdtB which distinguish it from other ER-translocating toxins. Cell-based assays further suggested that HdCdtB does not unfold before exiting the ER and that it may move directly from the ER lumen to the nucleoplasm. These observations suggest a novel mode of ER exit for HdCdtB.

Is there a risk of cancer development after Campylobacter infection?

OBJECTIVE: All Campylobacter jejuni species produce a genotoxin, which induce DNA double strand breaks, could lead to an increased risk of cancer especially in the gastro-intestinal tract. MATERIAL AND METHODS: All individuals in Stockholm County who tested positive with C. jejuni between 1989 and 2006 were included. The cohort was followed-up until December 31, 2007 for the occurrence of cancer, overall and site specific. Standard incidence ratios (SIR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated by comparisons with the background population. RESULTS: There were 16,276 individuals who tested positive for C. jejuni generating 124,387 person years. Excluding the first year of follow-up the overall risk for cancer did neither differ from that expected SIR = 0.95 (95% CI 0.82-1.09) nor after 10 years or more of follow-up; SIR = 0.91 (95% CI 0.71-1.16). There was no increased risk for cancer in the gastro-intestinal tract, but there were significantly increased risks for melanomas SIR = 1.84 (95% CI 1.27-2.57) and squamous cell skin cancer SIR = 1.52 (95% CI 1.01-2.19) while a significantly decreased risk of respiratory cancers among males SIR = 0.32 (95% CI 0.12-0.70) was observed. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate no excess risks of malignancies following an infection by C. jejuni at least during the first decade. Furthermore, the finding of a decreased risk of respiratory cancers could be of interest, if the results are reproduced in future studies in other populations.

Inhibition of hippocampal synaptic transmission by impairment of Ral function.

Large clostridial cytotoxins and protein overexpression were used to probe for involvement of Ras-related GTPases (guanosine triphosphate) in synaptic transmission in cultured rat hippocampal neurons. The toxins TcdA-10463 (inactivates Rho, Rac, Cdc42, Rap) and TcsL-1522 (inactivates Ral, Rac, Ras, R-Ras, Rap) both inhibited autaptic responses. In a proportion of the neurons (25%, TcdA-10463; 54%, TcsL-1522), the inhibition was associated with a shift from activity-dependent depression to facilitation, indicating that the synaptic release probability was reduced. Overexpression of a dominant negative Ral mutant, Ral A28N, caused a strong inhibition of autaptic responses, which was associated with a shift to facilitation in a majority (80%) of the neurons. These results indicate that Ral, along with at least one other non-Rab GTPase, participates in presynaptic regulation in hippocampal neurons.

Revised nomenclature of Clostridium difficile toxins and associated genes.

Several different nomenclatures have been applied to the Clostridium difficile toxins and their associated genes. This paper summarizes the new nomenclature that has been agreed to by the research groups currently active in the field. The revised nomenclature includes C. difficile toxins and other related large clostridial toxins produced by Clostridium sordellii and Clostridium novyi, and corresponding toxin genes, as well as toxin production types of C. difficile strains.

Membrane independent activation of fibroblast proMMP-2 by snake venom: novel roles for venom proteinases.

ProMMP-2 activation by Bothrops asper venom was investigated in mouse gastrocnemius muscle, mammalian cell culture and a cell-free system. Zymography revealed an increment of latent and activated forms of MMP-2 in muscle homogenates 1-3 days after venom injection. To clarify if venom can induce expression and activation of MMP-2, independently of the inflammatory response, venom was added to cultured human fibroblasts, endothelial and skeletal muscle cells, which expressed proMMP-2 constitutively. Venom activated proMMP-2 without promoting its expression. Venom also activated and degraded proMMP-2 in supernatants collected from fibroblast cultures, indicating that cells are not required for this activation. Pretreatment with EDTA increased MMP-2 activation and reduced degradation. Venom serine proteinases activated proMMP-2, whereas BaP1, a P-I metalloproteinase, predominantly degraded the latent and active forms of MMP-2. Moreover, pretreatment of conditioned medium with serine proteinase inhibitors greatly reduced the venom-induced activation, suggesting that venom proteinases activate MMP-2 via a serine proteinase secreted by fibroblasts. Venom also directly activated and degraded purified proMMP-2, albeit requiring a high concentration. Thus, B. asper venom proteinases activate and degrade proMMP-2 without inducing its synthesis. Serine proteinases play a dominant role in the activation, whereas metalloproteinases predominantly degrade MMP-2. Activation of proMMP-2 by snake venom proteinases, independently of the MT1-MMP/TIMP-2 pathway, extracellular matrix degradation or apoptosis, represents a novel mechanism in human fibroblasts.

Myc is required for activation of the ATM-dependent checkpoints in response to DNA damage.

BACKGROUND: The MYC protein controls cellular functions such as differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis. In response to genotoxic agents, cells overexpressing MYC undergo apoptosis. However, the MYC-regulated effectors acting upstream of the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway are still unknown. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: In this study, we demonstrate that expression of Myc is required to activate the Ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM)-dependent DNA damage checkpoint responses in rat cell lines exposed to ionizing radiation (IR) or the bacterial cytolethal distending toxin (CDT). Phosphorylation of the ATM kinase and its downstream effectors, such as histone H2AX, were impaired in the myc null cell line HO15.19, compared to the myc positive TGR-1 and HOmyc3 cells. Nuclear foci formation of the Nijmegen Breakage Syndrome (Nbs) 1 protein, essential for efficient ATM activation, was also reduced in absence of myc. Knock down of the endogenous levels of MYC by siRNA in the human cell line HCT116 resulted in decreased ATM and CHK2 phosphorylation in response to irradiation. Conversely, cell death induced by UV irradiation, known to activate the ATR-dependent checkpoint, was similar in all the cell lines, independently of the myc status. CONCLUSION: These data demonstrate that MYC contributes to the activation of the ATM-dependent checkpoint responses, leading to cell death in response to specific genotoxic stimuli.

A bacterial cytotoxin identifies the RhoA exchange factor Net1 as a key effector in the response to DNA damage.

BACKGROUND: Exposure of adherent cells to DNA damaging agents, such as the bacterial cytolethal distending toxin (CDT) or ionizing radiations (IR), activates the small GTPase RhoA, which promotes the formation of actin stress fibers and delays cell death. The signalling intermediates that regulate RhoA activation and promote cell survival are unknown. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We demonstrate that the nuclear RhoA-specific Guanine nucleotide Exchange Factor (GEF) Net1 becomes dephosphorylated at a critical inhibitory site in cells exposed to CDT or IR. Expression of a dominant negative Net1 or Net1 knock down by iRNA prevented RhoA activation, inhibited the formation of stress fibers, and enhanced cell death, indicating that Net1 activation is required for this RhoA-mediated responses to genotoxic stress. The Net1 and RhoA-dependent signals involved activation of the Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase p38 and its downstream target MAPK-activated protein kinase 2. SIGNIFICANCE: Our data highlight the importance of Net1 in controlling RhoA and p38 MAPK mediated cell survival in cells exposed to DNA damaging agents and illustrate a molecular pathway whereby chronic exposure to a bacterial toxin may promote genomic instability.

Increased infectivity of Staphylococcus aureus in an experimental model of snake venom-induced tissue damage.

Soft-tissue infection is commonly found in patients bitten by Latin American Bothrops snakes. Staphylococcus aureus, which is not present in the mouth of the snake, is frequently isolated from these infections. The effects of B. asper venom on infection with S. aureus were analyzed in a model of infection in envenomated mouse gastrocnemius muscle. Inoculation of 50 colony-forming units (cfu) of S. aureus was enough to cause infection in envenomated muscle, compared with >5x104 cfu without venom. This effect was also achieved by injection of venom myotoxin III (an A(2) phospholipase). A sarA mutant strain in which production of extracellular toxins and enzymes is up-regulated and binding of fibronectin, fibrinogen, and other host proteins is down-regulated was much less virulent than the corresponding parental strain, indicating that the ability of S. aureus to mask itself with host molecules might be more important than the effects of secreted toxins and enzymes in this kind of infection.

Cellular internalization of cytolethal distending toxin: a new end to a known pathway.

The cytolethal distending toxins (CDTs) are unique in their ability to induce DNA damage, activate checkpoint responses and cause cell cycle arrest or apoptosis in intoxicated cells. However, little is known about their cellular internalization pathway. We demonstrate that binding of the Haemophilus ducreyi CDT (HdCDT) on the plasma membrane of sensitive cells was abolished by cholesterol extraction with methyl-beta-cyclodextrin. The toxin was internalized via the Golgi complex, and retrogradely transported to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), as assessed by N-linked glycosylation. Further translocation from the ER did not require the ER-associated degradation (ERAD) pathway, and was Derlin-1 independent. The genotoxic activity of HdCDT was dependent on its internalization and its DNase activity, as induction of DNA double-stranded breaks was prevented in Brefeldin A-treated cells and in cells exposed to a catalytically inactive toxin. Our data contribute to a better understanding of the CDT mode of action and highlight two important aspects of the biology of this bacterial toxin family: (i) HdCDT translocation from the ER to the nucleus does not involve the classical pathways followed by other retrogradely transported toxins and (ii) toxin internalization is crucial for execution of its genotoxic activity.

A cellular deficiency of gangliosides causes hypersensitivity to Clostridium perfringens phospholipase C.

Clostridium perfringens phospholipase C (Cp-PLC), also called alpha-toxin, is the major virulence factor in the pathogenesis of gas gangrene. Previously, a cellular UDP-Glc deficiency was related with a hypersensitivity to the cytotoxic effect of Cp-PLC. Because UDP-Glc is required in the synthesis of proteoglycans, N-linked glycoproteins, and glycosphingolipids, the role of these gly-coconjugates in the cellular sensitivity to Cp-PLC was studied. The cellular sensitivity to Cp-PLC was significantly enhanced by glycosphingolipid synthesis inhibitors, and a mutant cell line deficient in gangliosides was found to be hypersensitive to Cp-PLC. Gangliosides protected hypersensitive cells from the cytotoxic effect of Cp-PLC and prevented its membrane-disrupting effect on artificial membranes. Removal of sialic acids by C. perfringens sialidase increases the sensitivity of cultured cells to Cp-PLC and intramuscular co-injection of C. perfringens sialidase, and Cp-PLC in mice potentiates the myotoxic effect of the latter. This work demonstrated that a reduction in gangliosides renders cells more susceptible to the membrane damage caused by Cp-PLC and revealed a previously unrecognized synergism between Cp-PLC and C. perfringens sialidase, providing new insights toward understanding the pathogenesis of clostridial myonecrosis.

Cytolethal distending toxins and activation of DNA damage-dependent checkpoint responses.

Cytolethal distending toxins (CDTs) are unique among bacterial protein toxins in their ability to cause DNA damage, due to their functional similarity to the mammalian deoxyribonuclease I (DNase I). The cellular response to CDT intoxication is characterised by activation of DNA damage-induced checkpoint responses, and the final outcome is cell type dependent. Cells of epithelial origin and normal keratinocytes are arrested in the G2 phase of the cell cycle, normal fibroblasts are also arrested in G1, while B cells die of apoptosis. CDTs are encoded by three linked genes (cdtA, cdtB and cdtC), and CdtB is the toxin subunit which possesses the DNase I-like activity. All the three genes have to be present in the bacterium in order to produce an active cytotoxin, however cytotoxic Haemophilus ducreyi CDT, purified from a CdtABC recombinant E. coli strain, contains the CdtB and CdtC subunits, suggesting that they constitute the holotoxin and that CdtC may be required for CdtB internalization. The role of the CdtA subunit is currently unknown, but it might modify and therefore activate CdtC. This review will focus on the cellular responses induced by CDTs in mammalian cells.

Glucose starvation results in UDP-glucose deficiency and inactivation of glycogen synthase.

The effects of glucose starvation on glycogen synthase (GS) activity and protein expression were investigated. Fibroblasts were cultured in medium supplemented with either glucose or pyruvate. Pyruvate-cultured cells exhibited UDP-glucose contents that amounted to approximately 10% of those in cells cultured with glucose. GS activity, protein and mRNA amounts in pyruvate-cultured cells were decreased to approximately 35, 60, and 60%, respectively, of values in glucose-cultured cells. Incubation of extracts from glucose-cultured cells with radioactive UDP-glucose resulted in substantial binding of ligand to immunoprecipitated GS. However, binding in immunoprecipitates from pyruvate-cultured cells was decreased to approximately 25% of values in glucose-cultured cells. These data indicate that glucose starvation and the subsequent depletion of UDP-glucose result in: (1) inactivation of GS, owing to a decrease in its ability to bind UDP-glucose, and (2) decreased amount of GS protein, owing to a decrease in the levels of GS mRNA.

The Haemophilus ducreyi cytolethal distending toxin induces DNA double-strand breaks and promotes ATM-dependent activation of RhoA.

Among bacterial protein toxins, the cytolethal distending toxins (CDTs) are unique in their ability to activate the DNA damage checkpoint responses, causing cell cycle arrest or apoptosis in intoxicated cells. We provide direct evidence that natural intoxication of cells with the Haemophilus ducreyi CDT (HdCDT) holotoxin induces DNA double-strand breaks similarly to ionizing radiation. Upon DNA damage, epithelial cells and fibroblasts promote the formation of actin stress fibres via activation of the small GTPase RhoA. This phenomenon is not toxin specific, but is part of the ATM-induced cellular responses to genotoxic stresses, including ionizing radiation. Activation of RhoA is associated with prolonged cell survival, as HdCDT-treated epithelial cells expressing a dominant-negative form of RhoA detach and consequently die faster than cells expressing a functional RhoA. Our data highlight several novel aspects of CDT biology: (i) we show that a member of the CDT family causes DNA double-strand breaks in naturally intoxicated cells, acting as a true genotoxic agent; and (ii) we disclose the existence of a novel signalling pathway for intracellularly triggered activation of the RhoA GTPase via the ATM kinase in response to DNA damage, possibly required to prolong cell survival.

A point mutation in the UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase gene results in decreases of UDP-glucose and inactivation of glycogen synthase.

The regulatory role of UDP-glucose in glycogen biogenesis was investigated in fibroblasts containing a point mutation in the UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase gene and, consequently, chronically low UDP-glucose levels (Qc). Comparisons were made with cells having the intact gene and restored UDP-glucose levels (G3). Glycogen was always very low in Qc cells. [(14)C]Glucose incorporation into glycogen was decreased and unaffected by insulin in Qc cells, whereas insulin stimulated glucose incorporation by approximately 50% in G3 cells. Glycogen synthase (GS) activity measured in vitro was virtually absent and the amount of enzyme in Qc cells was decreased by about 50%. The difference in GS activity between cells persisted even when G3 cells were devoid of glycogen. Incubation of G3 cell extracts with either exogenous UDP-glucose or glycogen resulted in increases in GS activity. Incubation of Qc cell extracts with exogenous UDP-glucose had no effect on GS activity; however, incubation with glycogen fully restored enzyme activity. Incubation of G3 cell extracts with radioactive UDP-glucose resulted in substantial binding of ligand to immunoprecipitated GS, whereas no binding was detected in Qc immunoprecipitates. Incubation of Qc cell extracts with exogenous glycogen fully restored UDP-glucose binding in the immunoprecipitate. These data suggest that chronically low UDP-glucose levels in cells result in inactivation of GS, owing to loss of the ability of GS to bind UDP-glucose.

Effects of Clostridium perfringens phospholipase C in mammalian cells.

Clostridium perfringens phospholipase C (Cp-PLC), the major virulence factor in the pathogenesis of gas gangrene, is a Zn(2+) metalloenzyme with lecithinase and sphingomyelinase activities. Its structure shows an N-terminal domain containing the active site, and a C-terminal Ca(2+) binding domain required for membrane interaction. Although the knowledge of the structure of Cp-PLC and its interaction with aggregated phospholipids has advanced significantly, an understanding of the effects of Cp-PLC in mammalian cells is still incomplete. Cp-PLC binds to artificial bilayers containing cholesterol and sphingomyelin or phosphatidylcholine (PC) and degrades them, but glycoconjugates present in biological membranes influence its binding or positioning toward its substrates. Studies with Cp-PLC variants harboring single amino-acid substitutions have revealed that the active site, the Ca(2+) binding region, and the membrane interacting surface are required for cytotoxic and haemolytic activity. Cp-PLC causes plasma membrane disruption at high concentrations, whereas at low concentrations it perturbs phospholipid metabolism, induces DAG generation, PKC activation, Ca(2+) mobilization, and activates arachidonic acid metabolism. The cellular susceptibility to Cp-PLC depends on the composition of the plasma membrane and the capacity to up-regulate PC synthesis. The composition of the plasma membrane determines whether Cp-PLC can bind and acquire its active conformation, and thus the extent of phospholipid degradation. The capacity of PC synthesis and the availability of precursors determine whether the cell can replace the degraded phospholipids. Whether the perturbations of signal transduction processes caused by Cp-PLC play a role in cytotoxicity is not clear. However, these perturbations in endothelial cells, platelets and neutrophils lead to the uncontrolled production of intercellular mediators and adhesion molecules, which inhibits bacterial clearance and induces thrombotic events, thus favouring bacterial growth and spread in the host tissues.

R-Ras glucosylation and transient RhoA activation determine the cytopathic effect produced by toxin B variants from toxin A-negative strains of Clostridium difficile.

Clostridium difficile induces antibiotic-associated diarrhea through the production of toxin A and toxin B; the former toxin has been assumed to be responsible for the symptoms of the disease. Several toxin A-negative strains from C. difficile have recently been isolated from clinical cases and have been reported to produce toxin B variants eliciting an atypical cytopathic effect. Ultrastructural analysis indicated these toxins induce a rounding cytopathic effect and filopodia-like structures. Toxin B variants glucosylated R-Ras, and transfection with a constitutively active mutant of this GTPase protected cells against their cytopathic effect. Treatment of cells with toxin B variants induced detachment from the extracellular matrix and blockade of the epidermal growth factor-mediated phosphorylation of extracellular-regulated protein kinases, demonstrating a deleterious effect on the R-Ras-controlled avidity of integrins. Treatment with toxin B variants also induced a transient activation of RhoA probably because of inactivation of Rac1. Altogether, these data indicate that the cytopathic effect induced by toxin B variants is because of cell rounding and detachment mediated by R-Ras glucosylation, and the induction of filopodia-like structures is mediated by RhoA activation. Implications for the pathophysiology of C. difficile-induced diarrhea are discussed.

The Haemophilus ducreyi cytolethal distending toxin activates sensors of DNA damage and repair complexes in proliferating and non-proliferating cells.

Cytolethal distending toxins (CDTs) block proliferation of mammalian cells by activating DNA damage-induced checkpoint responses. We demonstrate that the Haemophilus ducreyi CDT (HdCDT) induces phosphorylation of the histone H2AX as early as 1 h after intoxication and re-localization of the DNA repair complex Mre11 in HeLa cells with kinetics similar to those observed upon ionizing radiation. Early phosphorylation of H2AX was dependent on a functional Ataxia Telangiectasia mutated (ATM) kinase. Microinjection of a His-tagged HdCdtB subunit, homologous to the mammalian DNase I, was sufficient to induce re-localization of the Mre11 complex 1 h post treatment. However, the enzymatic potency was much lower than that exerted by bovine DNase I, which caused marked chromatin changes at 106 times lower concentrations than HdCdtB. H2AX phosphorylation and Mre11 re-localization were induced also in HdCDT-treated, non-proliferating dendritic cells (DCs) in a differentiation dependent manner, and resulted in cell death. The data highlight several novel aspects of CDTs biology. We demonstrate that the toxin activates DNA damage-associated molecules in an ATM-dependent manner, both in proliferating and non-proliferating cells, acting as other DNA damaging agents. Induction of apoptotic death of immature DCs by HdCDT may represent a previously unknown mechanism of immune evasion by CDT-producing microbes.

A cellular UDP-glucose deficiency causes overexpression of glucose/oxygen-regulated proteins independent of the endoplasmic reticulum stress elements.

A low level of UDP-Glc occurs in cells exposed to hypoxia or glucose starvation. This work reveals that a 65% reduction in the cellular UDP-Glc level causes up-regulation of the mitochondrial chaperone GRP75 and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) resident chaperones GRP58, ERp72, GRP78, GRP94, GRP170, and calreticulin. Conditions that cause misfolding of proteins within the ER activate the transcription factors ATF6alpha/beta and induce translation of the transcription factors XBP-1/TREB5 and ATF4/CREB2. These transcription factors induce the overexpression of ER chaperones and CHOP/GADD153. However, the 65% decrease in the cellular UDP-Glc level does not cause activation of ATF6alpha, splicing of XBP-1/TREB5, induction of ATF4/CREB2, or expression of CHOP/GADD153. The activity of the promoters of the ER chaperones is increased in UDP-Glc-deficient cells, but the activity of the CHOP/GADD153 promoter is not affected, in comparison with their respective activities in cells having compensated for the UDP-Glc deficiency. The results demonstrate that the unfolded protein response remains functionally intact in cells with a 65% decrease in the cellular UDP-Glc level and provide evidence that this decrease is a stress signal in mammalian cells, which triggers the coordinate overexpression of mitochondrial and ER chaperones, independently of the ER stress elements.