Racism and ambulatory blood pressure in a community sample.

OBJECTIVE: Racism has been identified as a psychosocial stressor that may contribute to disparities in the prevalence of cardiovascular disease. The goal of the present article was to investigate the relationship of perceived racism to ambulatory blood pressure (ABP) in a sample of American-born Blacks and Latinos. METHODS: Participants included English-speaking Black or Latino(a) adults between the ages of 24 and 65. They completed daily mood diaries and measures of perceived racism, socioeconomic status, and hostility. Participants were outfitted with ABP monitors; 357 provided data on waking hours only, and 245 provided data on both waking and nocturnal ABP. RESULTS: Perceived racism was positively associated with nocturnal ABP even when controlling for personality factors and socioeconomic status. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that racism may influence cardiovascular disease risk through its effects on nocturnal BP recovery.

PERCEIVED RACISM AND NEGATIVE AFFECT: ANALYSES OF TRAIT AND STATE MEASURES OF AFFECT IN A COMMUNITY SAMPLE.

Racism is a significant psychosocial stressor that is hypothesized to have negative psychological and physical health consequences. The Reserve Capacity Model (Gallo & Matthews, 2003) suggests that low socioeconomic status may influence health through its effects on negative affect. We extend this model to study the effects of racism, examining the association of lifetime perceived racism to trait and daily negative affect. A multiethnic sample of 362 American-born Black and Latino adults completed the Perceived Ethnic Discrimination Questionnaire-Community Version (PEDQ-CV). Trait negative affect was assessed with the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), and state negative affect was measured using ecological momentary assessments (EMA), in the form of an electronic diary. Analyses revealed a significant relationship of lifetime perceived racism to both daily negative affect and trait negative affect, even when controlling for trait hostility and socioeconomic status. The relationship of perceived racism to negative affect was moderated by education, such that the relationships were strongest for those with less than a high school education. The findings support aspects of the Reserve Capacity Model and identify pathways through which perceived racism may affect health status.

The relationship of racism to appraisals and coping in a community sample.

Ethnicity-related maltreatment (racism) is a significant stressor for many Americans and may contribute to racial disparities in health. Mechanisms linking this stressor to health status are not yet understood. This study tests the hypothesis that lifetime exposure to racism influences individuals' appraisals of and coping responses to new episodes of maltreatment. Participants included 420 Black and Latino patients and staff of community primary care practices in New York City. Participants completed the Brief Perceived Ethnic Discrimination Questionnaire--Community Version. They also completed measures of appraisals and anger coping modified to inquire about responses to new episodes of ethnicity-related maltreatment. Individuals who had higher levels of lifetime exposure to discrimination were more likely to experience new episodes as threatening and potentially harmful. Exposure to ethnic discrimination was also positively related to the use of anger coping styles, but the magnitude of the relationship varied depending on the type of discrimination. Individuals who had been exposed to higher levels of workplace discrimination were more likely to suppress anger in new situations. Those who were exposed to ethnicity-related social exclusion or harassment were more likely to confront others and aggressively express their feelings. The significance of the relationship held even when controlling for mood and personality variables that might account for both racism and coping. No differences were found between Blacks and Latinos in the relationship of racism to appraisals and coping. These findings add to the growing empirical literature on strategies for coping with racism.