Zero Threshold for Water Adsorption on MAPbBr3.

Hybrid organic-inorganic perovskites (HOIPs) have shown great promise in a wide range of optoelectronic applications. However, this performance is inhibited by the sensitivity of HOIPs to various environmental factors, particularly high levels of relative humidity. This study uses X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) to determine that there is essentially no threshold to water adsorption on the in situ cleaved MAPbBr3 (001) single crystal surface. Using scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), it shows that the initial surface restructuring upon exposure to water vapor occurs in isolated regions, which grow in area with increasing exposure, providing insight into the initial degradation mechanism of HOIPs. The electronic structure evolution of the surface was also monitored via ultraviolet photoemission spectroscopy (UPS), evidencing an increased bandgap state density following water vapor exposure, which is attributed to surface defect formation due to lattice swelling. This study will help to inform the surface engineering and designs of future perovskite-based optoelectronic devices.

Direct Visualization of a Gold Nanoparticle Electron Trapping Effect.

A new atomic-scale anisotropy in the photoreaction of surface carboxylates on rutile TiO2(110) induced by gold clusters is found. STM and DFT+U are used to study this phenomenon by monitoring the photoreaction of a prototype hole-scavenger molecule, benzoic acid, over stoichiometric (s) s-TiO2, Au9/s-TiO2, and reduced (r) Au9/r-TiO2. STM results show that benzoic acid adsorption displaces a large fraction of Au clusters from the terraces toward their edges. DFT calculations explain that Au9 clusters on stoichiometric TiO2 are distorted by benzoic acid adsorption. The influence of sub-monolayers of Au on the UV/visible photoreaction of benzoic acid was explored at room temperature, with adsorbate depletion taken as a measure of activity. The empty sites, observed upon photoexcitation, occurred in elongated chains (2 to 6 molecules long) in the [11̅0] and [001] directions. A roughly 3-fold higher depletion rate is observed in the [001] direction. This is linked to the anisotropic conduction of excited electrons along [001], with subsequent trapping by Au clusters leaving a higher concentration of holes and thus an increased decomposition rate. To our knowledge this is the first time that atomic-scale directionality of a chemical reaction is reported upon photoexcitation of the semiconductor.

Ce=O Terminated CeO2.

Multiply bonded lanthanide oxo groups are rare in coordination compounds and have not previously been reported for a surface termination of a lanthanide oxide. Here we report the observation of a Ce=O terminated ceria surface in a CeO2 (111)-( 3 × 3 )R30° reconstruction of ≈3 nm thick ceria islands prepared on Pt(111). This is evidenced by scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM), low energy electron diffraction (LEED) and high-resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy (HREELS) measurements in conjunction with density functional theory (DFT) calculations. A Ce=O stretching frequency of 775 cm-1 is observed in HREELS, compared with 766 cm-1 calculated by DFT. The calculations also predict that the Ce=O bond is weak, with an oxygen vacancy formation energy of 0.85 eV. This could play an important role in the facile removal of lattice oxygen from CeO2 , accompanied by the reduction of CeIV to CeIII , which is a key attribute of ceria-based systems in connection with their unique catalytic properties.

Photoemission core level binding energies from multiple sized nanoparticles on the same support: TiO2(110)/Au.

A novel method of measuring the core level binding energies of multiple sized nanoparticles on the same substrate is demonstrated using the early stage of Au nanoparticle growth on reduced r-TiO2(110). This method employed in situ scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and microfocused X-ray photoemission spectroscopy. An STM tip-shadowing method was used to synthesize patterned areas of Au nanoparticles on the substrate with different coverages and sizes. Patterns were identified and imaged using a UV photoelectron emission microscope. The Au 4f core level binding energies of the nanoparticles were investigated as a function of Au nanoparticle coverage and size. A combination of initial and final state effects modifies the binding energies of the Au 4f core levels as the nanoparticle size changes. When single Au atoms and Au3 clusters are present, the Au 4f7/2 binding energy, 84.42 eV, is similar to that observed at a high coverage (1.8 monolayer equivalent), resulting from a cancellation of initial and final state effects. As the coverage is increased, there is a decrease in binding energy, which then increases at a higher coverage to 84.39 eV. These results are consistent with a Volmer-Weber nucleation-growth model of Au nanoparticles at oxygen vacancies, resulting in electron transfer to the nanoparticles.

Electron induced nanoscale engineering of rutile TiO2 surfaces.

Electron stimulated modifications of the rutile TiO2(110) surface have been investigated using scanning tunnelling microscopy tip pulses and electron beam irradiation. Tip pulses on the 'as-prepared' surface induce local surface reconstruction and removal of surface hydroxyls in a region around the reconstruction. A defocused beam from an electron gun as well as tip pulses have been used to generate a number of oxygen deficient surfaces. All tip pulse features display an oval profile, which can be attributed to the anisotropic conductivity of the TiO2(110) surface. A novel oxygen deficient phase with well-ordered defective 'nano-cracks' has been identified, which can be produced by either electron beam irradiation or low flash anneal temperatures (∼570 K). Annealing such surfaces to moderate temperatures (∼850 K) leads to mixed 1 × 1 and 1 × 2 surfaces, until now only achievable by annealing in oxygen or ageing by repeated sputter/anneal cycles. Heating to normal preparation temperatures (1000 K) reforms the clean, well-ordered 1 × 1 surface termination. Our results demonstrate the potential of electron induced processes to modify the oxygen composition and structure of the TiO2(110) surface in a controllable and reversible way for selective surface patterning and surface reactivity modification.

Influence of support morphology on the bonding of molecules to nanoparticles.

Supported metal nanoparticles form the basis of heterogeneous catalysts. Above a certain nanoparticle size, it is generally assumed that adsorbates bond in an identical fashion as on a semiinfinite crystal. This assumption has allowed the database on metal single crystals accumulated over the past 40 years to be used to model heterogeneous catalysts. Using a surface science approach to CO adsorption on supported Pd nanoparticles, we show that this assumption may be flawed. Near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure measurements, isolated to one nanoparticle, show that CO bonds upright on the nanoparticle top facets as expected from single-crystal data. However, the CO lateral registry differs from the single crystal. Our calculations indicate that this is caused by the strain on the nanoparticle, induced by carpet growth across the substrate step edges. This strain also weakens the CO-metal bond, which will reduce the energy barrier for catalytic reactions, including CO oxidation.

Structure of the SnO_{2}(110)-(4×1) Surface.

Using surface x-ray diffraction (SXRD), quantitative low-energy electron diffraction (LEED), and density-functional theory (DFT) calculations, we have determined the structure of the (4×1) reconstruction formed by sputtering and annealing of the SnO_{2}(110) surface. We find that the reconstruction consists of an ordered arrangement of Sn_{3}O_{3} clusters bound atop the bulk-terminated SnO_{2}(110) surface. The model was found by application of a DFT-based evolutionary algorithm with surface compositions based on SXRD, and shows excellent agreement with LEED and with previously published scanning tunneling microscopy measurements. The model proposed previously consisting of in-plane oxygen vacancies is thus shown to be incorrect, and our result suggests instead that Sn(II) species in interstitial positions are the more relevant features of reduced SnO_{2}(110) surfaces.

Size-dependent dissociation of carbon monoxide on cobalt nanoparticles.

In situ soft X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) was employed to study the adsorption and dissociation of carbon monoxide molecules on cobalt nanoparticles with sizes ranging from 4 to 15 nm. The majority of CO molecules adsorb molecularly on the surface of the nanoparticles, but some undergo dissociative adsorption, leading to oxide species on the surface of the nanoparticles. We found that the tendency of CO to undergo dissociation depends critically on the size of the Co nanoparticles. Indeed, CO molecules dissociate much more efficiently on the larger nanoparticles (15 nm) than on the smaller particles (4 nm). We further observed a strong increase in the dissociation rate of adsorbed CO upon exposure to hydrogen, clearly demonstrating that the CO dissociation on cobalt nanoparticles is assisted by hydrogen. Our results suggest that the ability of cobalt nanoparticles to dissociate hydrogen is the main parameter determining the reactivity of cobalt nanoparticles in Fischer-Tropsch synthesis.

Electron traps and their effect on the surface chemistry of TiO2(110).

Oxygen vacancies on metal oxide surfaces have long been thought to play a key role in the surface chemistry. Such processes have been directly visualized in the case of the model photocatalyst surface TiO(2)(110) in reactions with water and molecular oxygen. These vacancies have been assumed to be neutral in calculations of the surface properties. However, by comparing experimental and simulated scanning tunneling microscopy images and spectra, we show that oxygen vacancies act as trapping centers and are negatively charged. We demonstrate that charging the defect significantly affects the reactivity by following the reaction of molecular oxygen with surface hydroxyl formed by water dissociation at the vacancies. Calculations with electronically charged hydroxyl favor a condensation reaction forming water and surface oxygen adatoms, in line with experimental observations. This contrasts with simulations using neutral hydroxyl where hydrogen peroxide is found to be the most stable product.

Fabrication of Isolated Iron Nanowires.

Nanoscale interconnects are an important component of molecular electronics. Here we use X-ray spectromicroscopy techniques as well as scanning probe methods to explore the self-assembled growth of insulated iron nanowires as a potential means of supplying an earth abundant solution. The intrinsic anisotropy of a TiO2(110) substrate directs the growth of micron length iron wires at elevated temperatures, with a strong metal-support interaction giving rise to ilmenite (FeTiO3) encapsulation. Iron nanoparticles that decorate the nanowires display magnetic properties that suggest other possible applications.

TiO2 Polarons in the Time Domain: Implications for Photocatalysis.

Exploiting the availability of solar energy to produce valuable chemicals is imperative in our quest for a sustainable energy cycle. TiO2 has emerged as an efficient photocatalyst, and as such its photochemistry has been studied extensively. It is well-known that polaronic defect states impact the activity of this chemistry. As such, understanding the fundamental excitation mechanisms deserves the attention of the scientific community. However, isolating the contribution of polarons to these processes has required increasingly creative experimental techniques and expensive theory. In this Perspective, we discuss recent advances in this field, with a particular focus on two-photon photoemission spectroscopy (2PPE) and density functional theory (DFT), and discuss the implications for photocatalysis.

Structure and reactivity of model CeO2surfaces.

As a key component in many industrial heterogeneous catalysts, the surface structure and reactivity of ceria, CeO2, has attracted a lot of attention. In this topical review we discuss some of the approaches taken to form a deeper understanding of the surface physics and chemistry of this important and interesting material. In particular, we focus on the preparation of ultrathin ceria films, nanostructures and supported metal nanoparticles. Cutting-edge microscopic and spectroscopic experimental techniques are highlighted which can probe the behaviour of oxygen species and atomic defects on these model surfaces.

Chemical Modification of Polaronic States in Anatase TiO2(101).

Two polymorphs of TiO2, anatase and rutile, are employed in photocatalytic applications. It is broadly accepted that anatase is the more catalytically active and subsequently finds wider commercial use. In this work, we focus on the Ti3+ polaronic states of anatase TiO2(101), which lie at ∼1.0 eV binding energy and are known to increase catalytic performance. Using UV-photoemission and two-photon photoemission spectroscopies, we demonstrate the capability to tune the excited state resonance of polarons by controlling the chemical environment. Anatase TiO2(101) contains subsurface polarons which undergo sub-band-gap photoexcitation to states ∼2.0 eV above the Fermi level. Formic acid adsorption dramatically influences the polaronic states, increasing the binding energy by ∼0.3 eV. Moreover, the photoexcitation oscillator strength changes significantly, resonating with states ∼3.0 eV above the Fermi level. We show that this behavior is likely due to the surface migration of subsurface oxygen vacancies.

Carboxylate Adsorption on Rutile TiO2(100): Role of Coulomb Repulsion, Relaxation, and Steric Hindrance.

Understanding the adsorption and photoactivity of acetic acid and trimethyl acetic acid on TiO2 surfaces is important for improving the performance of photocatalysts and dye-sensitized solar cells. Here we present a structural study of adsorption on rutile TiO2(100)-1 × 1 and -1 × 3 using Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy and Density Functional Theory calculations. Exposure of both terminations to acetic acid gives rise to a ×2 periodicity in the [001] direction (i.e., along Ti rows), with a majority ordered c(2 × 2) phase in the case of the 1 × 1 termination. The DFT calculations suggest that the preference of c(2 × 2) over the 2 × 1 periodicity found for TiO2(110)-1 × 1 can be attributed to an increase in interadsorbate Coulomb repulsion. Exposure of TiO2(100)-1 × 1 and -1 × 3 to trimethyl acetic acid gives rise to largely disordered structures due to steric effects, with quasi-order occurring in small areas and near step edges where these effects are reduced.

Size and Shape Dependence of the Electronic Structure of Gold Nanoclusters on TiO2.

Understanding the mechanism behind the superior catalytic power of single- or few-atom heterogeneous catalysts has become an important topic in surface chemistry. This is particularly the case for gold, with TiO2 being an efficient support. Here we use scanning tunneling microscopy/spectroscopy with theoretical calculations to investigate the adsorption geometry and local electronic structure of several-atom Au clusters on rutile TiO2(110), with the clusters fabricated by controlled manipulation of single atoms. Our study confirms that Au1 and Au2 clusters prefer adsorption at surface O vacancies. Au3 clusters adsorb at O vacancies in a linear-chain configuration parallel to the surface; in the absence of O vacancies they adsorb at Ti5c sites with a structure of a vertically pointing upright triangle. We find that both the electronic structure and cluster-substrate charge transfer depend critically on the cluster size, bonding configuration, and local environment. This suggests the possibility of engineering cluster selectivity for specific catalytic reactions.

Polaron-Adsorbate Coupling at the TiO2(110)-Carboxylate Interface.

Understanding how adsorbates influence polaron behavior is of fundamental importance in describing the catalytic properties of TiO2. Carboxylic acids adsorb readily at TiO2 surfaces, yet their influence on polaronic states is unknown. Using UV photoemission spectroscopy (UPS), two-photon photoemission spectroscopy (2PPE), and density functional theory (DFT) we show that dissociative adsorption of formic and acetic acids has profound, yet different, effects on the surface density, crystal field, and photoexcitation of polarons in rutile TiO2(110). We also show that these variations are governed by the contrasting electrostatic properties of the acids, which impacts the extent of polaron-adsorbate coupling. The density of polarons in the surface region increases more in formate-terminated TiO2(110) relative to acetate. Consequently, increased coupling gives rise to new photoexcitation channels via states 3.83 eV above the Fermi level. The onset of this process is 3.45 eV, likely adding to the catalytic photoyield.

A novel route for the inclusion of metal dopants in silicon.

We report a new method for introducing metal atoms into silicon wafers, using negligible thermal budget. Molecular thin films are irradiated with ultra-violet light releasing metal species into the semiconductor substrate. Secondary ion mass spectrometry and x-ray absorption spectroscopy show that Mn is incorporated into Si as an interstitial dopant. We propose that our method can form the basis of a generic low-cost, low-temperature technology that could lead to the creation of ordered dopant arrays.

State-Selective Dynamics of TiO2 Charge-Carrier Trapping and Recombination.

Time-resolved pump-probe photoemission spectroscopy has been used to study the dynamics of charge-carrier recombination and trapping on hydroxylated rutile TiO2(110). Two types of pump excitation were employed, one in the infrared (IR) (0.95 eV) and the other in the ultraviolet (UV) (3.5 eV) region. With IR excitation, electrons associated with defects are excited into the bottom of the conduction band from the polaronic states within the band gap, which are retrapped within 45 ± 10 fs. Under UV excitation, the electrons in these band-gap states (BGSs) and valence-band electrons are excited into the conduction band. In addition to the fast polaron trapping observed with IR excitation, we also observe a long lifetime (∼1 ps) component for both the depletion of hot electrons at the bottom of the conduction band and the refilling of the BGS. This points to a BGS-mediated recombination process with a picosecond lifetime.

Water-Induced Reversal of the TiO2(011)-(2 × 1) Surface Reconstruction: Observed with in Situ Surface X-ray Diffraction.

The (011) termination of rutile TiO2 is reported to be particularly effective for photocatalysis. Here, the structure of the interface formed between this substrate and water is revealed using surface X-ray diffraction. While the TiO2(011) surface exhibits a (2 × 1) reconstruction in ultra-high vacuum (UHV), this is lifted in the presence of a multilayer of water at room temperature. This change is driven by the formation of Ti-OH at the interface, which has a bond distance of 1.93 ± 0.02 Å. The experimental solution is in good agreement with density functional theory and first-principles molecular dynamics calculations. These results point to the important differences that can arise between the structure of oxide surfaces in UHV and technical environments and will ultimately lead to an atomistic understanding of the photocatalytic process of water splitting on TiO2 surfaces.