Multigenerational adversity impacts on human gut microbiome composition and socioemotional functioning in early childhood.

Adversity exposures in the prenatal and postnatal period are associated with an increased risk for psychopathology, which can be perpetuated across generations. Nonhuman animal research highlights the gut microbiome as a putative biological mechanism underlying such generational risks. In a sample of 450 mother-child dyads living in Singapore, we examined associations between three distinct adversity exposures experienced across two generations-maternal childhood maltreatment, maternal prenatal anxiety, and second-generation children's exposure to stressful life events-and the gut microbiome composition of second-generation children at 2 y of age. We found distinct differences in gut microbiome profiles linked to each adversity exposure, as well as some nonaffected microbiome features (e.g., beta diversity). Remarkably, some of the microbial taxa associated with concurrent and prospective child socioemotional functioning shared overlapping putative functions with those affected by adversity, suggesting that the intergenerational transmission of adversity may have a lasting impact on children's mental health via alterations to gut microbiome functions. Our findings open up a new avenue of research into the underlying mechanisms of intergenerational transmission of mental health risks and the potential of the gut microbiome as a target for intervention.

The effects of acute social ostracism on subsequent snacking behavior and future body mass index in children.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Ostracism may lead to increased food intake, yet it is unclear whether greater reactivity to ostracism contributes to higher body mass index (BMI). We investigated whether children who exhibited greater stress to social exclusion subsequently consume more energy and whether this predicts BMI 6- and 18-months later. SUBJECTS/METHODS: Children (8.5 years-old) (N = 262, males = 50.4%; Chinese = 58.4%) completed a laboratory-based manipulation of social exclusion (the Cyberball task) prior to an ad-libitum snack. Heart rate variability (HRV) was measured during the inclusion and exclusion conditions and proportionate changes were calculated as a physiological measure of exclusion-related stress. Social anxiety and social-emotional assets were also measured as moderators. RESULTS: Greater stress (as measured physiologically or by self-report) did not directly, or indirectly via energy intake, predict later BMI (at 9- and 10-years). However, among children reporting higher social anxiety, greater stress as measured by proportionate changes in HRV was associated with increased energy intake (B = 532.88, SE = 226.49, t(255) = 2.35, [CI95 = 86.85,978.92]). A significant moderated mediation was also observed (index: (b = 0.01, bootSE = 0.01, [CI95 = 0.001, 0.036]), such that among children reporting higher social anxiety, greater stress from social exclusion predicted increased energy intake from a subsequent snack, which in turn predicted higher BMI 1.5 years later. CONCLUSION: This prospective study suggests that a pattern of greater snack intake in response to heightened vulnerability to the effects of ostracism may contribute to increases in child BMI scores.

Maternal and Infant Dietary Patterns Are Not Related to Food Allergy Risk in Singapore Children: GUSTO Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: We previously reported that delayed allergenic food introduction in infancy did not increase food allergy risk until age 4 y within our prospective cohort. However, it remains unclear whether other aspects of maternal or infant diet play roles in the development of childhood food allergy. OBJECTIVES: We examined the relationship between maternal pregnancy and infant dietary patterns and the development of food allergies until age 8 y. METHODS: Among 1152 Singapore Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes study mother-infant dyads, the infant's diet was ascertained using food frequency questionnaires at 18 mo. Maternal dietary patterns during pregnancy were derived from 24-h diet recalls. Food allergy was determined through interviewer-administered questionnaires at regular time points from infancy to age 8 y and defined as a positive history of allergic reactions, alongside skin prick tests at 18 mo, 3, 5, and 8 y. RESULTS: Food allergy prevalence was 2.5% (22/883) at 12 mo and generally decreased over time by 8 y (1.9%; 14/736). Higher maternal dietary quality was associated with increased risk of food allergy (P ≤ 0.016); however, odds ratios were modest. Offspring food allergy risk ≤8 y showed no associations with measures of infant diet including timing of solids/food introduction (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 0.90; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.42, 1.92), infant's diet quality (aOR: 0.93; 95% CI: 0.88, 0.99) or diet diversity (aOR: 0.84; 95% CI: 0.6, 1.19). Most infants (89%) were first introduced to cow milk protein within the first month of life, while egg and peanut introduction were delayed (58.3% introduced by mean age 8.8 mo and 59.8% by mean age 18.1 mo, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Apart from maternal diet quality showing a modest association, infant's allergenic food introduction, diet quality, and dietary diversity were not associated with food allergy development in this Asian pediatric population. Interventional studies are needed to evaluate the efficacy of these approaches to food allergy prevention across different populations.

Trajectories of lifestyle patterns from 2 to 8 years of age and cardiometabolic risk in children: the GUSTO study.

BACKGROUND: Tracking combinations of lifestyle behaviours during childhood ("lifestyle pattern trajectories") can identify subgroups of children that might benefit from lifestyle interventions aiming to improve health outcomes later in life. However, studies on the critical transition period from early to middle childhood are limited. We aimed to describe lifestyle patterns trajectories in children from 2 to 8 years of age and evaluated their associations with cardiometabolic risk markers at age 8 years in a multi-ethnic Asian cohort. METHODS: Twelve lifestyle behaviours related to child's diet, physical activity, screen use, and sleep were ascertained using questionnaires at ages 2, 5, and 8 years. Age-specific lifestyle patterns were derived using principal component analysis and trajectories were determined using group-based multi-trajectory modelling. Child cardiometabolic risk markers were assessed at age 8 years, and associations with trajectories examined using multiple regression, adjusted for confounders. RESULTS: Among 546 children, two lifestyle patterns "healthy" and "unhealthy" were observed at ages 2, 5, and 8 years separately. Three trajectory groups from 2 to 8 years were identified: consistently healthy (11%), consistently unhealthy (18%), and mixed pattern (71%). Children in the consistently unhealthy group (vs. mixed pattern) had increased odds of pre-hypertension (OR = 2.96 [95% CI 1.18-7.41]) and higher levels of diastolic blood pressure (ß = 1.91 [0.27-3.55] mmHg), homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (ß = 0.43 [0.13-0.74]), triglycerides (ß = 0.11 [0.00-0.22] mmol/L), and metabolic syndrome score (ß = 0.85 [0.20-1.49]), but not with BMI z-score or any anthropometric measurements. The consistently healthy group showed no differences in cardiometabolic outcomes compared to the mixed pattern group. CONCLUSION: Three distinct lifestyle pattern trajectories were identified from early to middle childhood. Children in the consistently unhealthy lifestyle group did not have a raised BMI but was associated with several elevated cardiometabolic risk markers. These findings suggest the potential benefits of initiating holistic lifestyle interventions to improve children's health and well-being from an early age. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Trial registration number: NCT01174875. Name of registry: ClinicalTrials.gov. URL of registry: https://classic. CLINICALTRIALS: gov/ct2/show/NCT01174875 . Date of registration: August 4, 2010. Date of enrolment of the first participant to the trial: June 2009.

Nutrient trajectories during infancy and their associations with childhood neurodevelopment.

PURPOSE: To examine the associations between infants' dietary nutrient trajectories and subsequent neurodevelopment during childhood in the Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes study. METHODS: One-day food records were collected at ages 6, 9 and 12 months, whilst Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development-III and Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test-2 were conducted at ages 24 and 54 months respectively. Nutrient trajectories were constructed using multi-level mixed modelling and associations with neurodevelopment (24 months: n = 484; 54 months: n = 444) were examined using adjusted multivariable linear regression. RESULTS: At age 24 months, higher protein intake (at 6 months) and increasing rate of intake (from 6 to 12 months) were associated with higher fine motor score [ß = 0.17 SD (95% CI 0.03, 0.31) and 0.62 SD (0.10, 1.14) respectively]. Higher fat intake was associated with higher receptive language score [0.04 SD (0.003, 0.07)], but increasing rate of intake was associated with lower expressive language [- 0.20 SD (- 0.39, - 0.01)] and fine motor [- 0.29 SD (- 0.48, - 0.10)] scores. Higher carbohydrate intake was associated with lower gross motor score [- 0.07 SD (- 0.14, - 0.005)], but increasing rate of intake was associated with higher receptive language [0.44 SD (0.08, 0.81)] and fine motor [0.56 SD (0.18, 0.93)] scores. Increasing rate of dietary fibre intake was associated with higher fine motor scores [0.63 SD (0.16, 1.10)]. No significant associations were observed with neurodevelopment at 54 months. CONCLUSION: Our findings provide greater understanding of how nutrition over time could have varying effects on child neurodevelopment.

Family-focused contextual factors associated with lifestyle patterns in young children from two mother-offspring cohorts: GUSTO and EDEN.

BACKGROUND: Integrated patterns of energy balance-related behaviours of preschool children in Asia are sparse, with few comparative analyses. PURPOSE: Using cohorts in Singapore (GUSTO) and France (EDEN), we characterized lifestyle patterns of children and investigated their associations with family-focused contextual factors. METHODS: Ten behavioural variables related to child's diet, walking, outdoor play and screen time were ascertained by parental questionnaires at age 5-6 years. Using principal component analysis, sex-specific lifestyle patterns were derived independently for 630 GUSTO and 989 EDEN children. Contextual variables were organised into distal (family socio-economics, demographics), intermediate (parental health, lifestyle habits) and proximal (parent-child interaction factors) levels of influence and analysed with hierarchical linear regression. RESULTS: Three broadly similar lifestyle patterns were identified in both cohorts: "discretionary consumption and high screen time", "fruit, vegetables, and low screen time" and "high outdoor playtime and walking". The latter two patterns showed small differences between cohorts and sexes. The "discretionary consumption and high screen time" pattern was consistently similar in both cohorts; distal associated factors were lower maternal education (EDEN boys), no younger siblings (GUSTO boys) and Malay/Indian ethnicity (GUSTO), while intermediate and proximal associated factors in both cohorts and sexes were poor maternal diets during pregnancy, parents allowing high child control over food intake, snacking between meals and having television on while eating. CONCLUSIONS: Three similar lifestyle patterns were observed among preschool children in Singapore and France. There were more common associated proximal factors than distal ones. Cohort specific family-focused contextual factors likely reflect differences in social and cultural settings. Findings will aid development of strategies to improve child health.

Evaluation of paper-based and web-based food frequency questionnaires for 7-year-old children in Singapore.

Advances in technology enabled the development of a web-based, pictorial FFQ to collect parent-report dietary intakes of 7-year-old children in the Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes study. This study aimed to compare intakes estimated from a paper-FFQ and a web-FFQ and examine the relative validity of both FFQ against 3-d diet records (3DDR). Ninety-two mothers reported food intakes of their 7-year-old child on a paper-FFQ, a web-FFQ and a 3DDR. A usability questionnaire collected participants' feedback on the web-FFQ. Correlations and agreement in energy, nutrients and food groups intakes between the dietary assessments were evaluated using Pearson's correlation, Lin's concordance, Bland-Altman plots, Cohen's κ and tertile classification. The paper- and web-FFQ had good correlations (≥ 0·50) and acceptable-good agreement (Lin's concordance ≥ 0·30; Cohen's κ ≥ 0·41; ≥ 50 % correct and ≤ 10 % misclassification into same or extreme tertiles). Compared with 3DDR, both FFQ showed poor agreement (< 0·30) in assessing absolute intakes except micronutrients (web-FFQ had acceptable-good agreement), but showed acceptable-good ability to classify children into tertiles (κ ≥ 0·21; ≥ 40 % and ≤ 15 % correct or misclassification). Bland-Altman plots suggest good agreement between web-FFQ and 3DDR in assessing micronutrients and several food groups. The web-FFQ was well-received, and majority (81 %) preferred the web-FFQ over the paper-FFQ. The newly developed web-FFQ produced intake estimates comparable to the paper-FFQ, has acceptable-good agreement with 3DDR in assessing absolute micronutrients intakes and has acceptable-good ability to classify children according to categories of intakes. The positive acceptance of the web-FFQ makes it a feasible tool for future dietary data collection.

Dietary patterns of 5-year-old children and their correlates: findings from a multi-ethnic Asian cohort.

There is limited data on the dietary patterns of 5-year-old children in Asia. The study examined childhood dietary patterns and their maternal and child correlates in a multi-ethnic Asian cohort. Based on caregiver-reported 1-month quantitative FFQ of 777 children from the Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes cohort, cluster analysis identified two mutually exclusive clusters. Children in the 'Unhealthy' cluster (43·9 %) consumed more fries, processed meat, biscuits and ice cream, and less fish, fruits and vegetables compared with those in the 'Healthy' cluster (56·1 %). Children with mothers of lower educational attainment had twice the odds of being assigned to the 'Unhealthy' cluster (adjusted OR (95 % CI) = 2·19 (95 % CI 1·49-3·24)). Children of Malay and Indian ethnicities had higher odds of being assigned to the 'Unhealthy' cluster (adjusted OR = 25·46 (95 % CI 15·40, 42·10) and 4·03 (95 % CI 2·68-6·06), respectively), relative to Chinese ethnicity. In conclusion, this study identified two dietary patterns in children, labelled as the 'Unhealthy' and 'Healthy' clusters. Mothers' educational attainment and ethnicity were two correlates that were associated with the children's assignments to the clusters. These findings can assist in informing health promotion programmes targeted at Asian children.

Dietary intake and associations with myopia in Singapore children.

PURPOSE: To evaluate associations of dietary factors with myopia, spherical equivalent refractive error (SE) and axial length (AL) in children at age 9 from the Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes (GUSTO) birth cohort. METHODS: We included 467 multi-ethnic children (933 eyes) who participated in the GUSTO prospective birth cohort and were delivered in two major hospitals in Singapore (2009-2010). At the 9-year visit, we assessed the 6-year incidence of myopia (between ages 3 to 9), cycloplegic SE and AL in children without myopia (SE ≤ -0.5 D in either eye) at the 3-year visit. Using a validated 112-item food frequency questionnaire, parents reported each child's average daily intake of dietary factors (nutrients and food groups) in the past month. Paired eyes were analysed using Generalised Estimating Equations with multivariable logistic or linear regression. Bonferroni corrections were applied, correcting for multiple comparisons between the 13 nutrients (p < 0.004) or 8 food groups (p < 0.006) and each outcome. RESULTS: In children aged 9 years (51.0% boys; 56.3% Chinese), the 6-year incidence of myopia was 35.5%. Overall, the mean (SD) SE and AL were -0.3 (1.7) D and 23.4 (1.0) mm, respectively. In multivariable regression, macronutrients or micronutrients were not associated with incident myopia (p ≥ 0.004 for all), adjusting for total energy, gender, ethnicity, time outdoors, near-work and the number of myopic parents (additionally child's height for outcome AL). Similarly, all food groups (including refined grains, sugar-sweetened beverages, protein foods, fruits and vegetables) were not associated with incident myopia (p ≥ 0.006 for all). Additionally, none of the nutrients (p ≥ 0.004 for all) or food groups (p ≥ 0.006 for all) were associated with SE or AL. CONCLUSIONS: Our study findings of no significant association between specific nutrients or food groups and incident myopia or SE or AL suggest that diet may not be associated with myopia in children aged 9 years. Well-conducted prospective studies in other populations may clarify the association.

The longitudinal association between early-life screen viewing and abdominal adiposity-findings from a multiethnic birth cohort study.

IMPORTANCE: Screen viewing in adults has been associated with greater abdominal adiposity, with the magnitude of associations varying by sex and ethnicity, but the evidence is lacking at younger ages. We aimed to investigate sex- and ethnic-specific associations of screen-viewing time at ages 2 and 3 years with abdominal adiposity measured by magnetic resonance imaging at age 4.5 years. METHODS: The Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes is an ongoing prospective mother-offspring cohort study. Parents/caregivers reported the time their child spent viewing television, handheld devices, and computer screens at ages 2 and 3 years. Superficial and deep subcutaneous and visceral abdominal adipose tissue volumes were quantified from magnetic resonance images acquired at age 4.5 years. Associations between screen-viewing time and abdominal adipose tissue volumes were examined by multivariable linear regression adjusting for confounding factors. RESULTS: In the overall sample (n = 307), greater total screen-viewing time and handheld device times were associated with higher superficial and deep subcutaneous adipose tissue volumes, but not with visceral adipose tissue volumes. Interactions with child sex were found, with significant associations with superficial and deep subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue volumes in boys, but not in girls. Among boys, the increases in mean (95% CI) superficial and deep subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue volumes were 24.3 (9.9, 38.7), 17.6 (7.4, 27.8), and 7.8 (2.1, 13.6) mL per hour increase in daily total screen-viewing time, respectively. Ethnicity-specific analyses showed associations of total screen-viewing time with abdominal adiposity only in Malay children. Television viewing time was not associated with abdominal adiposity. CONCLUSION: Greater total screen-viewing time (and in particular, handheld device viewing time) was associated with higher abdominal adiposity in boys and Malay children. Additional studies are necessary to confirm these associations and to examine screen-viewing interventions for preventing excessive abdominal adiposity and its adverse cardiometabolic consequences.

A Web-Based Time-Use Application to Assess Diet and Movement Behavior in Asian Schoolchildren: Development and Usability Study of My E-Diary for Activities and Lifestyle (MEDAL).

BACKGROUND: Web-based time-use diaries for schoolchildren are limited, and existing studies focus mostly on capturing physical activities and sedentary behaviors but less comprehensively on dietary behaviors. OBJECTIVE: This study aims to describe the development of My E-Diary for Activities and Lifestyle (MEDAL)-a self-administered, web-based time-use application to assess diet and movement behavior-and to evaluate its usability in schoolchildren in Singapore. METHODS: MEDAL was developed through formative research and an iterative user-centric design approach involving small groups of schoolchildren (ranging from n=5 to n=15, aged 7-13 years). To test the usability, children aged 10-11 years were recruited from 2 primary schools in Singapore to complete MEDAL for 2 weekdays and 2 weekend days and complete a 10-item usability questionnaire. RESULTS: The development process revealed that younger children (aged <9 years) were less able to complete MEDAL independently. Of the 204 participants (118/204, 57.8% boys, and 31/201, 15.4% overweight) in the usability study, 57.8% (118/204) completed 3 to 4 days of recording, whereas the rest recorded for 2 days or less. The median time taken to complete MEDAL was 14.2 minutes per day. The majority of participants agreed that instructions were clear (193/203, 95.1%), that MEDAL was easy to use (173/203, 85.2%), that they liked the application (172/202, 85.1%), and that they preferred recording their activities on the web than on paper (167/202, 82.7%). Among all the factors evaluated, recording for 4 days was the least satisfactory component reported. Compared with boys, girls reported better recall ability and agreed that the time spent on completing 1-day entry was appropriate. CONCLUSIONS: MEDAL appears to be a feasible application to capture diet and movement behaviors in children aged 10-12 years, particularly in the Asian context. Some gender differences in usability performance were observed, but the majority of the participants had a positive experience using MEDAL. The validation of the data collected through the application is in progress.

Association of sugar-sweetened beverage intake at 18 months and 5 years of age with adiposity outcomes at 6 years of age: the Singapore GUSTO mother-offspring cohort.

Consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB) by infants and young children are less explored in Asian populations. The Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes cohort study examined associations between SSB intake at 18 months and 5 years of age, with adiposity measures at 6 years of age. We studied Singaporean infants/children with SSB intake assessed by FFQ at 18 months of age (n 555) and 5 years of age (n 767). The median for SSB intakes is 28 (interquartile range 5·5-98) ml at 18 months of age and 111 (interquartile range 57-198) ml at 5 years of age. Association between SSB intake (100 ml/d increments and tertile categories) and adiposity measures (BMI standard deviation scores (sd units), sum of skinfolds (SSF)) and overweight/obesity status were examined using multivariable linear and Poisson regression models, respectively. After adjusting for confounders and additionally for energy intake, SSB intake at age 18 months were not significantly associated with later adiposity measures and overweight/obesity outcomes. In contrast, at age 5 years, SSB intake when modelled as 100 ml/d increments were associated with higher BMI by 0·09 (95 % CI 0·02, 0·16) sd units, higher SSF thickness by 0·68 (95 % CI 0·06, 1·44) mm and increased risk of overweight/obesity by 1·2 (95 % CI 1·07, 1·23) times at age 6 years. Trends were consistent with SSB intake modelled as categorical tertiles. In summary, SSB intake in young childhood is associated with higher risks of adiposity and overweight/obesity. Public health policies working to reduce SSB consumption need to focus on prevention programmes targeted at young children.

Validation of a semi-quantitative FFQ for 18-month-old toddlers: the Growing Up in Singapore Towards Healthy Outcomes (GUSTO) study.

OBJECTIVE: Dietary intake of toddlers has been of growing interest due to its long-term consequences on health. However, previous works have focused largely on Caucasian populations and less is known about Asian toddlers. We aimed to validate a semi-quantitative FFQ designed to assess dietary intakes of 18-month-old toddlers in a multi-ethnic Asian cohort. DESIGN: An FFQ of ninety-four food items, identified based on food records of 12-month-old GUSTO children, the Southampton Women's Survey 12 Month Infancy Questionnaire and inputs from paediatric dietitians, was filled out two weeks before the 18th-month clinic visit. As the reference method, two non-consecutive 24 h recalls (24HR) were administered during and two weeks after the clinic visit. FFQ nutrient intakes were validated against averaged 24HR nutrient intakes, using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test, Spearman's rank-order correlation, cross-classification and the Bland-Altman method. SETTING: Data from the Singapore Growing Up in Singapore Towards Healthy Outcomes (GUSTO) mother-offspring birth cohort.ParticipantsToddlers (n 188) aged 18 months. RESULTS: Absolute nutrient intakes from the FFQ were significantly higher than from the 24HR, except for vitamin A. After energy adjustments, r range was 0·56-0·78 (macronutrients) and 0·40-0·54 (micronutrients). De-attenuation increased r to 0·58-0·96 and 0·45-0·65 for macro- and micronutrients, respectively. Of participants, ≥82·4 % (macronutrients) and ≥77·7 % (micronutrients) were classified in the same and adjacent quartiles. No clear systematic increase in intake differences with increasing mean intake was observed in Bland-Altman plots. CONCLUSIONS: This FFQ can provide a satisfactory assessment of toddlers' energy-adjusted nutrient intakes, as well as accurately rank them in a group.

Maternal feeding practices and children's food intake during an ad libitum buffet meal: Results from the GUSTO cohort.

Parents' feeding practices have been shown to be associated with children's food intake and weight status, but little is known about feeding practices in Asian countries. This study used behavioral observation to explore the feeding practices of 201 mothers of 4.5 year-old children in Singapore during an ad libitum buffet lunch. Feeding practices were coded from videos, focusing on behaviors used to prompt the child to eat more food (autonomy-supportive and coercive-controlling prompts to eat, suggesting items from buffet), those to reduce intake (restriction, questioning food choice), and those related to eating rate (hurrying or slowing child eating). Child outcome measures included energy consumed, variety of food items selected, and BMI. Maternal restriction and trying to slow child eating rate were associated with higher energy consumed by the child (r = 0.19 and 0.13, respectively; p < 0.05). Maternal autonomy-supportive prompts and restriction were associated with a greater variety of items selected by children (r = 0.19 and 0.15, respectively; p < 0.05). The frequency of maternal feeding practice use differed across ethnic groups, with Malay mothers using the most prompts to eat (p < 0.05), Chinese mothers most likely to question a child's food choice (p < 0.01), and Indian mothers the last likely to tell the child to eat faster (p < 0.001). There were no differences between ethnic groups for other feeding practices. No associations were found between feeding practices and child BMI. It is possible that feeding practices related to restriction and slowing child eating are adopted in response to children who consume larger portions, although longitudinal or intervention studies are needed to confirm the direction of this relationship and create local recommendations.

Prospective associations between parental feeding practices and children's oral processing behaviours.

Previous research demonstrated that faster eating rates are linked with increased intake of energy during a meal. Here, we examined whether within-meal parental feeding practices show cross-sectional and prospective associations with children's oral processing behaviours and whether the previously demonstrated association between faster eating rates and higher energy intakes varies by parental feeding practices. A subset (n = 155) of children and their mothers from the Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes cohort participated in an ad libitum meal at age 4.5 years. Children's oral processing behaviours (eating rate, bite size, chews per gram, oral exposure time, and meal duration) and parental feeding practices (autonomy-supporting and coercive prompts, restrictions, hurrying, and slowing) were recorded during the meal. Subsequently, 94 of the children participated in a follow-up meal without their mothers at age 6 years. Parental feeding practices were not consistently associated with child oral processing behaviours overall. However, exploratory post hoc analyses revealed some sex differences. The mothers of girls with faster eating rates, larger bite sizes, and fewer chews were more likely to use hurrying, slowing, and restrictions, but similar associations were not observed among boys. Children who had the most problematic eating style and were eating fast and for long experienced more restrictions, instructions to slow down, and prompts. Faster eating rates were linked with the highest energy intakes if children were additionally prompted to eat. Prospective analyses showed that children who were more often prompted using coercive techniques and less frequently hurried at age 4.5 years had faster eating rates at 6 years and a larger increase in eating rates between ages 4.5 and 6 years but did not consume more energy. Although the direction of these associations cannot be assumed, these exploratory analyses suggest sex differences in the associations between feeding practices and oral processing behaviours and highlight the potential role of parents in the development of children's oral processing behaviours.

Oral processing behaviours that promote children's energy intake are associated with parent-reported appetitive traits: Results from the GUSTO cohort.

Oral processing behaviours associated with faster eating rates have been consistently linked to increased energy intakes, but little is known about their links to children's appetitive traits. This study used the Child Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (CEBQ) to explore cross-sectional and prospective associations between parent-reported appetitive traits and observed oral processing behaviours. Participants were 195 children from the Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes cohort, who participated in a video-recorded ad libitum lunch at 4.5 (Time 1) and 6 years (Time 2). Their mothers completed the CEBQ around the same time points. Children's bites, chews and swallows were coded, and used to calculate their eating rate, bite size, chews per bite, chew rate, oral exposure time and oral exposure per bite. At Time 1, children with higher scores in slowness in eating had lower eating and chew rates. At Time 2, higher scores for food enjoyment and lower for satiety responsiveness, slowness in eating, and food fussiness were linked with higher eating rates and greater energy intakes (r > 0.16, p < 0.05). Post-hoc analyses revealed that these associations were moderated by BMI and only present among children with higher BMI. Faster eating rates mediated the associations between greater food enjoyment, lower slowness in eating, lower food fussiness and higher intakes of energy. Children with higher slowness in eating scores had lower increases in eating rates over time, and children with higher BMI who had greater food enjoyment and food responsiveness scores had greater increases in eating rates over time. The findings suggest that oral processing behaviours linked with increased obesity risk may be underpinned by appetitive traits and may be one of the behavioural pathways through which these appetitive traits influence energy intakes.

Circadian feeding patterns of 12-month-old infants.

Early life nutrition and feeding practices are important modifiable determinants of subsequent obesity, yet little is known about the circadian feeding pattern of 12-month-old infants. We aimed to describe the 24-h feeding patterns of 12-month-old infants and examine their associations with maternal and infant characteristics. Mothers from a prospective birth cohort study (n 431) reported dietary intakes of their 12-month-old infants and respective feeding times using 24-h dietary recall. Based on their feeding times, infants were classified into post-midnight (00.00-05.59 hours) and pre-midnight (06.00-23.59 hours) feeders. Mean daily energy intake was 3234 (sd 950) kJ (773 (sd 227) kcal), comprising 51·8 (sd 7·8) % carbohydrate, 33·9 (sd 7·2) % fat and 14·4 (sd 3·2) % protein. Mean hourly energy intake and proportion of infants fed were lower during post-midnight than pre-midnight hours. There were 251 (58·2 %) pre-midnight and 180 (41·8 %) post-midnight feeders. Post-midnight feeders consumed higher daily energy, carbohydrate, fat and protein intakes than pre-midnight feeders (all P<0·001). The difference in energy intake originated from energy content consumed during the post-midnight period. Majority (n 173) of post-midnight feeders consumed formula milk during the post-midnight period. Using multivariate logistic regression with confounder adjustment, exclusively breast-feeding during the first 6 months of life was negatively associated with post-midnight feeding at 12 months (adjusted OR 0·31; 95 % CI 0·11, 0·82). This study provides new insights into the circadian pattern of energy intake during infancy. Our findings indicated that the timing of feeding at 12 months was associated with daily energy and macronutrient intakes, and feeding mode during early infancy.

Faster eating rates are associated with higher energy intakes during an ad libitum meal, higher BMI and greater adiposity among 4·5-year-old children: results from the Growing Up in Singapore Towards Healthy Outcomes (GUSTO) cohort.

Faster eating rates are associated with increased energy intake, but little is known about the relationship between children's eating rate, food intake and adiposity. We examined whether children who eat faster consume more energy and whether this is associated with higher weight status and adiposity. We hypothesised that eating rate mediates the relationship between child weight and ad libitum energy intake. Children (n 386) from the Growing Up in Singapore Towards Healthy Outcomes cohort participated in a video-recorded ad libitum lunch at 4·5 years to measure acute energy intake. Videos were coded for three eating-behaviours (bites, chews and swallows) to derive a measure of eating rate (g/min). BMI and anthropometric indices of adiposity were measured. A subset of children underwent MRI scanning (n 153) to measure abdominal subcutaneous and visceral adiposity. Children above/below the median eating rate were categorised as slower and faster eaters, and compared across body composition measures. There was a strong positive relationship between eating rate and energy intake (r 0·61, P<0·001) and a positive linear relationship between eating rate and children's BMI status. Faster eaters consumed 75 % more energy content than slower eating children (Δ548 kJ (Δ131 kcal); 95 % CI 107·6, 154·4, P<0·001), and had higher whole-body (P<0·05) and subcutaneous abdominal adiposity (Δ118·3 cc; 95 % CI 24·0, 212·7, P=0·014). Mediation analysis showed that eating rate mediates the link between child weight and energy intake during a meal (b 13·59; 95 % CI 7·48, 21·83). Children who ate faster had higher energy intake, and this was associated with increased BMI z-score and adiposity.

Validation of the Children's Eating Behavior Questionnaire in 3 year old children of a multi-ethnic Asian population: The GUSTO cohort study.

The Children's Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (CEBQ) was developed to measure eating behaviors related to obesity risk in children. However, this questionnaire has not been validated for use in South East Asia, where parenting practices are different from those in western countries and child obesity rates are increasing. The aim of this study was to examine the validity of the CEBQ administered to mothers of children aged 3 years in Singapore. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to examine if the original 35-item, 8-factor model was supported in our cohort. Participants were 636 mother-child dyads (mean (SD) child age = 36.7 (1.6) months), from the Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes (GUSTO) birth cohort in which the mothers were characterized in pregnancy and children were followed up to age 3 years. The CFA showed a poor model fit; RMSEA = 0.072 (PCLOSE<0.001), SRMR = 0.094, CFI = 0.826, and TLI = 0.805. Exploratory factor analysis revealed a 35 item, 7-factor structure (factor loadings ≥ 0.35): enjoyment of food, food fussiness, emotional overeating, desire to drink, emotional under eating, satiety responsiveness and slowness in eating. Cronbach's alpha estimates ranged from 0.70 to 0.88 for the 7 subscales. Convergent validity tests via correlation analysis revealed that emotional under eating (r = -0.14), slowness in eating (r = -0.16) and satiety responsiveness (r = -0.11) were negatively correlated with BMI z-score at 3 years, while enjoyment of food (r = 0.12) was positively correlated, p < 0.05. In conclusion, we found a revised 7-factor structure of the CEBQ more appropriate for examining eating behavior in 3 year old children in the Singapore setting. Further replication studies in a separate cohort study are warranted before further use of these factor structures generated.

Prospective associations of appetitive traits at 3 and 12 months of age with body mass index and weight gain in the first 2 years of life.

BACKGROUND: Appetitive traits in childhood such as food responsiveness and enjoyment of food have been associated with body mass index (BMI) in later childhood. However, data on appetitive traits during infancy in relation to BMI in later childhood are sparse. We aimed to relate appetitive traits in infancy to subsequent BMI and weight gain up to 24 months of age. METHODS: Data of 210 infants from the Singapore GUSTO mother-offspring cohort was obtained. The Baby Eating Behavior Questionnaire (BEBQ) and the Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire (CEBQ) were administered to mothers when their offspring were aged 3 and 12 months respectively. Height and weight of offspring were measured at ages 3, 6, 9,12,15,18 and 24 months. The association of appetitive traits with both BMI z-score and weight gain were evaluated using multivariate linear regression. RESULTS: Food responsiveness at 3 months was associated with higher BMI from 6 months up to 15 months of age (p < 0.01) and with greater weight gain between 3 and 6 months of age (p = 0.012). Slowness in eating and satiety responsiveness at 3 months was significantly associated with lower BMI at 6 months (p < 0.01) and with less weight gain between 3 to 6 months of age (p = 0.034). None of the appetitive traits at 12 months were significantly associated with BMI or weight gain over any time period. CONCLUSION: Early assessment of appetitive traits at 3 months of age but not at 12 months of age was associated with BMI and weight gain over the first two years of life. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Clinical Trials identifier NCT01174875.