Metabolism of levulinate in perfused rat livers and live rats: conversion to the drug of abuse 4-hydroxypentanoate.

Calcium levulinate (4-ketopentanoate) is used as an oral and parenteral source of calcium. We hypothesized that levulinate is converted in the liver to 4-hydroxypentanoate, a new drug of abuse, and that this conversion is accelerated by ethanol oxidation. We confirmed these hypotheses in live rats, perfused rat livers, and liver subcellular preparations. Levulinate is reduced to (R)-4-hydroxypentanoate by a cytosolic and a mitochondrial dehydrogenase, which are NADPH- and NADH-dependent, respectively. A mitochondrial dehydrogenase or racemase system also forms (S)-4-hydroxypentanoate. In livers perfused with [(13)C(5)]levulinate, there was substantial CoA trapping in levulinyl-CoA, 4-hydroxypentanoyl-CoA, and 4-phosphopentanoyl-CoA. This CoA trapping was increased by ethanol, with a 6-fold increase in the concentration of 4-phosphopentanoyl-CoA. Levulinate is catabolized by 3 parallel pathways to propionyl-CoA, acetyl-CoA, and lactate. Most intermediates of the 3 pathways were identified by mass isotopomer analysis and metabolomics. The production of 4-hydroxypentanoate from levulinate and its stimulation by ethanol is a potential public health concern.

Mexican-origin youth's ethnic-racial identity development: The role of siblings.

Ethnic-racial identity (ERI) formation is an important developmental task. Although families are a primary context for ERI socialization, little is known about siblings' role. Accordingly, we applied the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model to longitudinal data from 2 siblings to examine the links between siblings' ERI exploration, resolution, and affirmation. Participants were Mexican-origin mothers, fathers, and 2 siblings (older siblings Mage = 20.65 years; younger siblings Mage = 17.72 years) from 246 families in Arizona who were interviewed on 2 occasions across 2 years. Siblings' ERI exploration in late adolescence positively predicted young adult ERI, accounting for mothers' and fathers' ERIs. For resolution, the sibling (i.e., partner) effect was moderated by sibling gender constellation, such that the sibling effect emerged only for same-sex dyads. For affirmation, the sibling effect emerged for older but not younger siblings. These findings highlight the need to understand siblings' role in ERI and to expand research on family socialization of ERI beyond parents. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

MiR 208a Regulates Mitochondrial Biogenesis in Metabolically Challenged Cardiomyocytes.

Metabolic syndrome increases the risk for cardiovascular disease including metabolic cardiomyopathy that may progress to heart failure. The decline in mitochondrial metabolism is considered a critical pathogenic mechanism that drives this progression. Considering its cardiac specificity, we hypothesized that miR 208a regulates the bioenergetic metabolism in human cardiomyocytes exposed to metabolic challenges. We screened in silico for potential miR 208a targets focusing on mitochondrial outcomes, and we found that mRNA species for mediator complex subunit 7, mitochondrial ribosomal protein 28, stanniocalcin 1, and Sortin nexin 10 are rescued by the CRISPR deletion of miR 208a in human SV40 cardiomyocytes exposed to metabolic challenges (high glucose and high albumin-bound palmitate). These mRNAs translate into proteins that are involved in nuclear transcription, mitochondrial translation, mitochondrial integrity, and protein trafficking. MiR 208a suppression prevented the decrease in myosin heavy chain α isoform induced by the metabolic stress suggesting protection against a decrease in cardiac contractility. MiR 208a deficiency opposed the decrease in the mitochondrial biogenesis signaling pathway, mtDNA, mitochondrial markers, and respiratory properties induced by metabolic challenges. The benefit of miR 208a suppression on mitochondrial function was canceled by the reinsertion of miR 208a. In summary, miR 208a regulates mitochondrial biogenesis and function in cardiomyocytes exposed to diabetic conditions. MiR 208a may be a therapeutic target to promote mitochondrial biogenesis in chronic diseases associated with mitochondrial defects.

Cardiac mitochondria in heart failure: decrease in respirasomes and oxidative phosphorylation.

AIMS: Mitochondrial dysfunction is a major factor in heart failure (HF). A pronounced variability of mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) defects is reported to occur in severe acquired cardiomyopathies without a consistent trend for depressed activity or expression. The aim of this study was to define the defect in the integrative function of cardiac mitochondria in coronary microembolization-induced HF. METHODS AND RESULTS: Studies were performed in the canine coronary microembolization-induced HF model of moderate severity. Oxidative phosphorylation was assessed as the integrative function of mitochondria, using a comprehensive variety of substrates in order to investigate mitochondrial membrane transport, dehydrogenase activity and electron-transport coupled to ATP synthesis. The supramolecular organization of the mitochondrial ETC also was investigated by native gel electrophoresis. We found a dramatic decrease in ADP-stimulated respiration that was not relieved by an uncoupler. Moreover, the ADP/O ratio was normal, indicating no defect in the phosphorylation apparatus. The data point to a defect in oxidative phosphorylation within the ETC. However, the individual activities of ETC complexes were normal. The amount of the supercomplex consisting of complex I/complex III dimer/complex IV, the major form of respirasome considered essential for oxidative phosphorylation, was decreased. CONCLUSIONS: We propose that the mitochondrial defect lies in the supermolecular assembly rather than in the individual components of the ETC.

Apoptosis inducing factor deficiency causes retinal photoreceptor degeneration. The protective role of the redox compound methylene blue.

Dysfunction in mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) underlies a wide spectrum of human ailments known as mitochondrial diseases. Deficiencies in complex I of the electron transport chain (ETC) contribute to 30-40% of all cases of mitochondrial diseases, and leads to eye disease including optic nerve atrophy and retinal degeneration. The mechanisms responsible for organ damage in mitochondrial defects may include energy deficit, oxidative stress, and an increase in the NADH/NAD+ redox ratio due to decreased NAD+ regeneration. Currently, there is no effective treatment to alleviate human disease induced by complex I defect. Photoreceptor cells have the highest energy demand and dependence on OXPHOS for survival, and the lowest reserve capacity indicating that they are sensitive to OXPHOS defects. We investigated the effect of mitochondrial OXPHOS deficiency on retinal photoreceptors in a model of mitochondrial complex I defect (apoptosis inducing factor, AIF-deficient mice, Harlequin mice), and tested the protective effect of a mitochondrial redox compound (methylene blue, MB) on mitochondrial and photoreceptor integrity. MB prevented the reduction in the retinal thickness and protein markers for photoreceptor outer segments, Muller and ganglion cells, and altered mitochondrial integrity and function induced by AIF deficiency. In rotenone-induced complex I deficient 661 W cells (an immortalized mouse photoreceptor cell line) MB decreased the NADH/NAD+ ratio and oxidative stress without correcting the energy deficit, and improved cell survival. MB deactivated the mitochondrial stress response pathways, the unfolding protein response and mitophagy. In conclusion, preserving mitochondrial structure and function alleviates retinal photoreceptor degeneration in mitochondrial complex I defect.

Mitochondrial complex I defect and increased fatty acid oxidation enhance protein lysine acetylation in the diabetic heart.

AIMS: Cardiomyopathy is a major complication of diabetes. Our study was aimed to identify the sites of mitochondrial dysfunction and delineate its consequences on mitochondrial metabolism in a model of type 1 diabetes. METHODS AND RESULTS: Diabetes was induced by streptozotocin injection to male Lewis rats. We found a decrease in mitochondrial biogenesis pathway and electron transport chain complex assembly that targets Complex I. Oxidation of Complex II and long-chain fatty acid substrates support the electron leak and superoxide production. Mitochondrial defects do not limit fatty acid oxidation as the heart's preferred energy source indicating that the diabetic heart has a significant reserve in Complex I- and II-supported ATP production. Both mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation and Complex I defect are responsible for increased protein lysine acetylation despite an unchanged amount of the NAD(+)-dependent mitochondrial deacetylase sirt3. We quantitatively analysed mitochondrial lysine acetylation post-translational modifications and identified that the extent of lysine acetylation on 54 sites in 22 mitochondrial proteins is higher in diabetes compared with the same sites in the control. The increased lysine acetylation of the mitochondrial trifunctional protein subunit α may be responsible for the increased fatty acid oxidation in the diabetic heart. CONCLUSION: We identified the specific defective sites in the electron transport chain responsible for the decreased mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation in the diabetic heart. Mitochondrial protein lysine acetylation is the common consequence of both increased fatty acid oxidation and mitochondrial Complex I defect, and may be responsible for the metabolic inflexibility of the diabetic heart.

Synergistic simvastatin and metformin combination chemotherapy for osseous metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer.

Docetaxel chemotherapy remains a standard of care for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Docetaxel modestly increases survival, yet results in frequent occurrence of side effects and resistant disease. An alternate chemotherapy with greater efficacy and minimal side effects is needed. Acquisition of metabolic aberrations promoting increased survival and metastasis in CRPC cells includes constitutive activation of Akt, loss of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activity due to Ser-485/491 phosphorylation, and overexpression of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-Coenzyme A reductase (HMG-CoAR). We report that combination of simvastatin and metformin, within pharmacologic dose range (500 nmol/L to 4 µmol/L simvastatin and 250 µmol/L to 2 mmol/L metformin), significantly and synergistically reduces C4-2B3/B4 CRPC cell viability and metastatic properties, with minimal adverse effects on normal prostate epithelial cells. Combination of simvastatin and metformin decreased Akt Ser-473 and Thr-308 phosphorylation and AMPKα Ser-485/491 phosphorylation; increased Thr-172 phosphorylation and AMPKα activity, as assessed by increased Ser-79 and Ser-872 phosphorylation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase and HMG-CoAR, respectively; decreased HMG-CoAR activity; and reduced total cellular cholesterol and its synthesis in both cell lines. Studies of C4-2B4 orthotopic NCr-nu/nu mice further demonstrated that combination of simvastatin and metformin (3.5-7.0 µg/g body weight simvastatin and 175-350 µg/g body weight metformin) daily by oral gavage over a 9-week period significantly inhibited primary ventral prostate tumor formation, cachexia, bone metastasis, and biochemical failure more effectively than 24 µg/g body weight docetaxel intraperitoneally injected every 3 weeks, 7.0 µg/g/day simvastatin, or 350 µg/g/day metformin treatment alone, with significantly less toxicity and mortality than docetaxel, establishing combination of simvastatin and metformin as a promising chemotherapeutic alternative for metastatic CRPC.

Oxidation of fatty acids is the source of increased mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production in kidney cortical tubules in early diabetes.

Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) cause kidney damage in diabetes. We investigated the source and site of ROS production by kidney cortical tubule mitochondria in streptozotocin-induced type 1 diabetes in rats. In diabetic mitochondria, the increased amounts and activities of selective fatty acid oxidation enzymes is associated with increased oxidative phosphorylation and net ROS production with fatty acid substrates (by 40% and 30%, respectively), whereas pyruvate oxidation is decreased and pyruvate-supported ROS production is unchanged. Oxidation of substrates that donate electrons at specific sites in the electron transport chain (ETC) is unchanged. The increased maximal production of ROS with fatty acid oxidation is not affected by limiting the electron flow from complex I into complex III. The maximal capacity of the ubiquinol oxidation site in complex III in generating ROS does not differ between the control and diabetic mitochondria. In conclusion, the mitochondrial ETC is neither the target nor the site of ROS production in kidney tubule mitochondria in short-term diabetes. Mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation is the source of the increased net ROS production, and the site of electron leakage is located proximal to coenzyme Q at the electron transfer flavoprotein that shuttles electrons from acyl-CoA dehydrogenases to coenzyme Q.

Decrease in mitochondrial function in rat cardiac permeabilized fibers correlates with the aging phenotype.

We measured the loss of cardiac mitochondrial function related to aging in males of three rat strains presenting with different longevity and aging phenotypes: the Fischer 344 (F344), the Brown Norway (BN), and the hybrid F344×BN. The F344 rat has a short life span and a ∼45% decrease in coupled mitochondrial oxidation in the cardiac permeabilized fibers from the old rats compared with the young rats. Citrate synthase activity in the permeabilized fibers (mitochondrial content) did not change significantly with aging. The BN live longer compared with the F344 and have a 15%-18% loss of mitochondrial respiration in the aged rats compared with the young rats. The differences are not significant. In hybrids, more resistant to aging than are the BN and the F344, mitochondrial function is preserved during aging. The difference in longevity of the different strains is correlated with mitochondrial dysfunction in the heart, suggesting the importance of mitochondria in cardiac aging.

High-fat diet postinfarction enhances mitochondrial function and does not exacerbate left ventricular dysfunction.

Lipid accumulation in nonadipose tissue due to enhanced circulating fatty acids may play a role in the pathophysiology of heart failure, obesity, and diabetes. Accumulation of myocardial lipids and related intermediates, e.g., ceramide, is associated with decreased contractile function, mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, and electron transport chain (ETC) complex activities. We tested the hypothesis that the progression of heart failure would be exacerbated by elevated myocardial lipids and an associated ceramide-induced inhibition of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and ETC complex activities. Heart failure (HF) was induced by coronary artery ligation. Rats were then randomly assigned to either a normal (10% kcal from fat; HF, n = 8) or high saturated fat diet (60% kcal from saturated fat; HF + Sat, n = 7). Sham-operated animals (sham; n = 8) were fed a normal diet. Eight weeks postligation, left ventricular (LV) function was assessed by echocardiography and catheterization. Subsarcolemmal and interfibrillar mitochondria were isolated from the LV. Heart failure resulted in impaired LV contractile function [decreased percent fractional shortening and peak rate of LV pressure rise and fall (+/-dP/dt)] and remodeling (increased end-diastolic and end-systolic dimensions) in HF compared with sham. No further progression of LV dysfunction was evident in HF + Sat. Mitochondrial state 3 respiration was increased in HF + Sat compared with HF despite elevated myocardial ceramide. Activities of ETC complexes II and IV were elevated in HF + Sat compared with HF and sham. High saturated fat feeding following coronary artery ligation was associated with increased oxidative phosphorylation and ETC complex activities and did not adversely affect LV contractile function or remodeling, despite elevations in myocardial ceramide.

Production of reactive oxygen species by mitochondria: central role of complex III.

The mitochondrial respiratory chain is a major source of reactive oxygen species (ROS) under pathological conditions including myocardial ischemia and reperfusion. Limitation of electron transport by the inhibitor rotenone immediately before ischemia decreases the production of ROS in cardiac myocytes and reduces damage to mitochondria. We asked if ROS generation by intact mitochondria during the oxidation of complex I substrates (glutamate, pyruvate/malate) occurred from complex I or III. ROS production by mitochondria of Sprague-Dawley rat hearts and corresponding submitochondrial particles was studied. ROS were measured as H2O2 using the amplex red assay. In mitochondria oxidizing complex I substrates, rotenone inhibition did not increase H2O2. Oxidation of complex I or II substrates in the presence of antimycin A markedly increased H2O2. Rotenone prevented antimycin A-induced H2O2 production in mitochondria with complex I substrates but not with complex II substrates. Catalase scavenged H2O2. In contrast to intact mitochondria, blockade of complex I with rotenone markedly increased H2O2 production from submitochondrial particles oxidizing the complex I substrate NADH. ROS are produced from complex I by the NADH dehydrogenase located in the matrix side of the inner membrane and are dissipated in mitochondria by matrix antioxidant defense. However, in submitochondrial particles devoid of antioxidant defense ROS from complex I are available for detection. In mitochondria, complex III is the principal site for ROS generation during the oxidation of complex I substrates, and rotenone protects by limiting electron flow into complex III.