Inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in apple cider by resveratrol and naringenin.

The study investigated the efficacy of two GRAS-status phytochemicals, mega-resveratrol (RV) and naringenin (NG) to inactivate Escherichia coli O157:H7 (EHEC) in apple cider. A five-strain mixture of EHEC (∼7 log CFU/ml) was inoculated into cider, followed by the addition of RV (8.7 mM and 13.0 mM) or NG (7.3 mM and 11.0 mM). The cider samples were stored at 4 °C for 14 days and EHEC was enumerated on days 0,1,5,7 and 14. The deleterious effects of RV and NG on EHEC cells were visualized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and RT-qPCR was done to determine the effect of phytochemicals on three known acid resistance (AR) systems of EHEC. NG was more effective than RV and reduced EHEC counts by ∼4.5 log CFU/ml by day 14, whereas RV reduced counts by ∼2.5 log CFU/ml compared to controls (P < 0.05). SEM showed that RV and NG resulted in the destruction of EHEC cells, and surviving bacteria appeared 'lemon shaped'. RT-qPCR results revealed that RV and NG downregulated the transcription of AR associated genes in EHEC (P < 0.05). Results suggest the potential use of RV and NG as natural antimicrobial additives to enhance the microbiological safety of apple cider. However, sensory analysis studies are warranted.

Inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli O157:H7 on cantaloupes by octenidine dihydrochloride.

The efficacy of a new generation disinfectant, octenidine dihydrochloride (OH), as wash and coating treatments for reducing Listeria monocytogenes (LM), Salmonella spp. (SAL), and Escherichia coli O157:H7 (EC) on cantaloupe was investigated. Cantaloupe rind plugs inoculated separately with the three bacterial species (∼8 log CFU/cm(2)) were washed for 1, 3, 5 min at 25 °C in water, or chlorine (200 ppm), ethanol (1%), OH (0.01, 0.05, 0.1%) and surviving populations were measured after treatment. Additionally, inoculated cantaloupe rind plugs were coated with 2% chitosan or chitosan containing OH (0.01, 0.05, 0.1%) and sampled for surviving pathogens. Subsequently, the antimicrobial efficacy of OH wash and coating (0.1, 0.2%) on whole cantaloupes was determined. All OH wash reduced LM, SAL, and EC on cantaloupe rinds by > 5 log CFU/cm(2) by 2 min, and reduced populations to undetectable levels (below 2 log CFU/cm(2)) by 5 min (P < 0.05). Similarly, OH coating on cantaloupe rinds reduced the pathogens by 3-5 log /cm(2) (P < 0.05). Washing and coating whole cantaloupes with OH reduced the three pathogens by at least 5 log and 2 log CFU/cm(2), respectively (P < 0.05). Results suggest that OH could be used as antimicrobial wash and coating to reduce LM, SAL, and EC on cantaloupes.

Efficacy of Trans-cinnamaldehyde and Eugenol in Reducing Acinetobacter baumannii Adhesion to and Invasion of Human Keratinocytes and Controlling Wound Infection In Vitro.

The study investigated the efficacy of two natural, plant-derived antimicrobials (PDAs), namely trans-cinnamaldehyde (TC), and eugenol (EG) for decreasing Acinetobacter baumannii adhesion to and invasion of human keratinocytes (HEK001). Moreover, the efficacy of two PDAs for inhibiting A. baumannii biofilm formation was determined using an in vitro collagen matrix wound model. Additionally, the effect of TC and EG on A. baumannii biofilm architecture was visualized using confocal scanning microscopy. Further the effect of both PDAs on genes critical for biofilm synthesis was determined using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Both TC and EG significantly reduced A. baumannii adhesion and invasion to HEK001 by ~2 to 3 log10 CFU/mL (p < 0.05) compared with the controls (p < 0.05). Further, after 24 and 48 h, TC and EG inhibited biofilm formation by ~1.5 to 2 and ~2 to 3.5 log10 CFU/mL, compared with controls (p < 0.05). Confocal microscopy revealed that TC and EG disrupted the biofilm architecture. RT-qPCR results indicated that two phytochemicals significantly down-regulated the transcription of genes associated with A. baumannii biofilm production. The results suggest that both TC and EG could potentially be used to treat A. baumannii wound infections; however, their efficacy in in vivo models needs to be validated. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

In-feed supplementation of trans-cinnamaldehyde reduces layer-chicken egg-borne transmission of Salmonella enterica serovar enteritidis.

Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis is a major foodborne pathogen in the United States, causing gastroenteritis in humans, primarily through consumption of contaminated eggs. Chickens are the reservoir host of S. Enteritidis. In layer hens, S. Enteritidis colonizes the intestine and migrates to various organs, including the oviduct, leading to egg contamination. This study investigated the efficacy of in-feed supplementation with trans-cinnamaldehyde (TC), a generally recognized as safe (GRAS) plant compound obtained from cinnamon, in reducing S. Enteritidis cecal colonization and systemic spread in layers. Additionally, the effect of TC on S. Enteritidis virulence factors critical for macrophage survival and oviduct colonization was investigated in vitro. The consumer acceptability of eggs was also determined by a triangle test. Supplementation of TC in feed for 66 days at 1 or 1.5% (vol/wt) for 40- or 25-week-old layer chickens decreased the amounts of S. Enteritidis on eggshell and in yolk (P<0.001). Additionally, S. Enteritidis persistence in the cecum, liver, and oviduct in TC-supplemented birds was decreased compared to that in controls (P<0.001). No significant differences in feed intake, body weight, or egg production in birds or in consumer acceptability of eggs were observed (P>0.05). In vitro cell culture assays revealed that TC reduced S. Enteritidis adhesion to and invasion of primary chicken oviduct epithelial cells and reduced S. Enteritidis survival in chicken macrophages (P<0.001). Follow-up gene expression analysis using real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) showed that TC downregulated the expression of S. Enteritidis virulence genes critical for chicken oviduct colonization (P<0.001). The results suggest that TC may potentially be used as a feed additive to reduce egg-borne transmission of S. Enteritidis.

Reducing Colonization and Eggborne Transmission of Salmonella Enteritidis in Layer Chickens by In-Feed Supplementation of Caprylic Acid.

Salmonella Enteritidis (SE) is a major foodborne pathogen responsible for causing gastrointestinal infections in humans, predominantly due to the consumption of contaminated eggs. In layer hens, SE colonizes the intestine and migrates to various organs, including the oviduct, thereby leading to egg yolk and shell contamination. This study investigated the efficacy of caprylic acid (CA), a medium-chain fatty acid, in reducing SE colonization and egg contamination in layers. Caprylic acid was supplemented in the feed at 0%, 0.7%, or 1% (vol/wt) from day 1 of the experiment. Birds were challenged with 10(10) log colony-forming units (CFU)/mL of SE by crop gavage on day 10, and re-inoculated (10(10) log CFU/mL) on day 35. After 7 days post first inoculation, eggs were collected daily and tested for SE on the shell and in the yolk separately. The birds were sacrificed on day 66 to determine SE colonization in the ceca, liver, and oviduct. The consumer acceptability of eggs was also determined by triangle test. The experiment was replicated twice. In-feed supplementation of CA (0.7% and 1%) to birds consistently decreased SE on eggshell and in the yolk (p<0.05). Supplementation of CA at 1.0% decreased SE population to ≈14% on the shell and ≈10% in yolk, when compared to control birds, which yielded ≈60% positive samples on shell and ≈43% in yolk. Additionally, SE populations in the cecum and liver were reduced in treated birds compared to control (p<0.05). No significant difference in egg production, body weight, or sensory properties of eggs was observed (p>0.05). The results suggest that CA could potentially be used as a feed additive to reduce eggborne transmission of SE.

Controlling Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus growth and aflatoxin production in poultry feed using carvacrol and trans-cinnamaldehyde.

Aflatoxins (AF) are toxic metabolites primarily produced by molds, Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Contamination of poultry feed with AF is a major concern to the poultry industry due to severe economic losses stemming from poor performance, reduced egg production, and diminished egg hatchability. This study investigated the inhibitory effect of 2 generally regarded as safe (GRAS), natural plant compounds, namely carvacrol (CR) and trans-cinnamaldehyde (TC), on A. flavus and A. parasiticus growth and AF production in potato dextrose broth (PDB) and in poultry feed. In broth culture, PDB supplemented with CR (0%, 0.02%, 0.04% and 0.08%) or TC (0%, 0.005%, 0.01% and 0.02%) was inoculated with A. flavus or A. parasiticus (6 log CFU/mL), and mold counts and AF production were determined on days 0, 1, 3, and 5. Similarly, 200 g portions of poultry feed supplemented with CR or TC (0%, 0.4%, 0.8%, and 1.0%) were inoculated with each mold, and their counts and AF concentrations in the feed were determined at 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, and 12 weeks of storage. Moreover, the effect of CR and TC on the expression of AF synthesis genes in A. flavus and A. parasiticus (aflC, nor1, norA, and ver1) was determined using real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR). All experiments had duplicate samples and were replicated 3 times. Results indicated that CR and TC reduced A. flavus and A. parasiticus growth and AF production in broth culture and chicken feed (P<0.05). All tested concentrations of CR and TC decreased AF production in broth culture and chicken feed by at least 60% when compared to controls (P<0.05). In addition, CR and TC down-regulated the expression of major genes associated with AF synthesis in the molds (P<0.05). Results suggest the potential use of CR and TC as feed additives to control AF contamination in poultry feed.

Efficacy of fumigation with Trans-cinnamaldehyde and eugenol in reducing Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis on embryonated egg shells.

This study investigated the efficacy of two GRAS (generally regarded as safe)-status, plant-derived antimicrobials (PDAs), namely trans-cinnamaldehyde (TC) and eugenol (EUG) applied as a fumigation treatment in reducing SE on embryonated egg shells. Egg shells of day-old embryonated eggs were spot inoculated with a 4-strain mixture of SE (∼6.5 log CFU/egg) and subjected to fumigation with the aforementioned PDAs (0 or 1% concentration) for 20 minutes in a hatching incubator. SE on the shell and embryo was enumerated on days 1, 3, 6, 9, 13, 16 and 18. On day 13, the eggs were re-inoculated, followed by fumigation treatment for 20 minutes. Since the two PDAs were dissolved in ethanol (final concentration 0.04%), eggs fumigated with ethanol were included as a control.Approximately 6 log CFU/egg of SE were recovered from the shell of untreated, inoculated eggs on days 1 and 13. The fumigation of embryonated egg shells with the two PDAs was more effective in reducing SE on the shell and embryo compared to controls (P < 0.05). On day 18, the eggs fumigated with ethanol were SE positive on the shell, whereas no pathogen was detected on eggs subjected to fumigation with TC and EUG. Similarly, although the embryos of eggs subjected to fumigation with ethanol yielded 1 log CFU/egg of SE on day 18, the embryos of TC and EUG treated eggs were devoid of the pathogen. This study demonstrated that TC and EUG dissolved in 0.04% ethanol could potentially be used as a fumigation treatment for reducing SE on embryonated egg shell, however, quality traits of eggs, including the hatchability need to be ascertained.

Anticarcinogenic properties of medium chain fatty acids on human colorectal, skin and breast cancer cells in vitro.

Colorectal cancer, breast cancer and skin cancer are commonly-reported cancer types in the U.S. Although radiation and chemotherapy are routinely used to treat cancer, they produce side effects in patients. Additionally, resistance to chemotherapeutic drugs has been noticed in cancers. Thus, there is a need for effective and safe bioprophylactics and biotherapeutics in cancer therapy. The medicinal value of goat milk has been recognized for centuries and is primarily attributed to three fatty acids, namely capric, caprylic and caproic acids. This research investigates the anticancer property of these fatty acids on human colorectal, skin and mammary gland cancer cells. The cancer cells were treated with various concentrations of fatty acids for 48 h, and cell viability was monitored by the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) reduction assay. Additionally, real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) was performed to elucidate the potential anti-cancer mechanisms of the three fatty acids under investigation. Capric, caprylic and caproic acids reduced cancer cell viability by 70% to 90% (p < 0.05) compared to controls. RT-qPCR data indicated that these natural molecules produced anticancer effects by down-regulating cell cycle regulatory genes and up-regulating genes involved in apoptosis. Future research will validate the anticancer effect of these fatty acids in an appropriate in vivo model.

Efficacy of plant-derived compounds combined with hydrogen peroxide as antimicrobial wash and coating treatment for reducing Listeria monocytogenes on cantaloupes.

The efficacy of four plant-derived antimicrobials (PDAs), namely carvacrol, thymol, ß-resorcylic acid, and caprylic acid, with or without hydrogen peroxide (HP), as antimicrobial wash and chitosan based coating for reducing Listeria monocytogenes (LM) on cantaloupes was investigated. Cantaloupe rind plugs inoculated with LM (10(7) CFU/cm(2)) were washed for 3, 6, 10 min at 25 °C or 1, 3, 5 min at 55 or 65 °C in water, or water containing 2% PDAs with or without 2% HP. Additionally, inoculated cantaloupes (10(8) CFU/fruit) washed with 2% PDA-HP combinations at 55 or 65 °C (5 min) were cut into rindless cubical pieces, stored at 4 °C for 7 days and sampled for LM. Furthermore, inoculated plugs coated with 2% PDAs were stored for 7 days and sampled for surviving LM. Individual PDA washes reduced LM on rinds by ≥2.5 log CFU/cm(2) by 3 min (P < 0.05). PDA-HP combinations decreased LM to undetectable levels by 5 min at 55, 65 °C, and 10 min at 25 °C (P < 0.05) and reduced LM transfer from cantaloupe surface to interior (P < 0.0001). All PDA coating treatments reduced LM on cantaloupe to undetectable levels by 5 days (P < 0.05). Results indicate that PDAs alone, or with HP could be used to reduce LM on cantaloupes.

Characterization of Clostridium difficile isolates from human fecal samples and retail meat from Pennsylvania.

A study was conducted to determine the prevalence of Clostridium difficile and characterize C. difficile isolates from human stool and retail grocery meat samples. Human stool samples (n=317) were obtained from a clinical laboratory and meat samples (n=303) were collected from 8 retail grocery stores from October 2011 through September 2012 from Centre County of Pennsylvania and were examined for C. difficile. C. difficile was isolated from 16.7% of stool samples (n=317) and 6.9%, 11.5%, 14.5%, and 7.8% of beef (n=72), pork (n=78), turkey (n=76), and chicken (n=77) samples, respectively. Six different toxin gene profiles were detected in all human and meat isolates of C. difficile based on the presence or absence of toxin genes tcdA, tcdB, and cdtA and cdtB. Interestingly, 75.6% of the human C. difficile isolates lacked any deletion in the tcdC gene (139-bp), whereas a 39-bp deletion was observed in 61.3% of the C. difficile strains isolated from meat samples. C. difficile from meat samples were more susceptible to clindamycin, moxifloxacin, vancomycin, and metronidazole than C. difficile isolates from human samples. Twenty-five different ribotypes were identified in human and meat C. difficile isolates. In conclusion, significant genotypic and phenotypic differences were observed between human and meat isolates of C. difficile; however, a few C. difficile isolates from meat-in particular ribotypes 078, PA01, PA05, PA16, and PA22 with unique profiles (toxin gene, tcdC gene size and antimicrobial resistance profiles)-were similar to human C. difficile isolates.

Sub-inhibitory concentrations of trans-cinnamaldehyde attenuate virulence in Cronobacter sakazakii in vitro.

Cronobacter sakazakii is a foodborne pathogen, which causes a life-threatening form of meningitis, necrotizing colitis and meningoencephalitis in neonates and children. Epidemiological studies implicate dried infant formula as the principal source of C. sakazakii. In this study, we investigated the efficacy of sub-inhibitory concentrations (SIC) of trans-cinnamaldehyde (TC), an ingredient in cinnamon, for reducing C. sakazakii virulence in vitro using cell culture, microscopy and gene expression assays. TC significantly (p ≤ 0.05) suppressed C. sakazakii adhesion to and invasion of human and rat intestinal epithelial cells, and human brain microvascular endothelial cells. In addition, TC inhibited C. sakazakii survival and replication in human macrophages. We also observed that TC reduced the ability of C. sakazakii to cause cell death in rat intestinal cells, by inhibiting nitric oxide production. Results from gene expression studies revealed that TC significantly downregulated the virulence genes critical for motility, host tissue adhesion and invasion, macrophage survival, and LPS (Lipopolysaccharide) synthesis in C. sakazakii. The efficacy of TC in attenuating these major virulence factors in C. sakazakii underscores its potential use in the prevention and/or control of infection caused by this pathogen.

Carvacrol and trans-cinnamaldehyde reduce Clostridium difficile toxin production and cytotoxicity in vitro.

Clostridium difficile is a nosocomial pathogen that causes a serious toxin-mediated enteric disease in humans. Reducing C. difficile toxin production could significantly minimize its pathogenicity and improve disease outcomes in humans. This study investigated the efficacy of two, food-grade, plant-derived compounds, namely trans-cinnamaldehyde (TC) and carvacrol (CR) in reducing C. difficile toxin production and cytotoxicity in vitro. Three hypervirulent C. difficile isolates were grown with or without the sub-inhibitory concentrations of TC or CR, and the culture supernatant and the bacterial pellet were collected for total toxin quantitation, Vero cell cytotoxicity assay and RT-qPCR analysis of toxin-encoding genes. The effect of CR and TC on a codY mutant and wild type C. difficile was also investigated. Carvacrol and TC substantially reduced C. difficile toxin production and cytotoxicity on Vero cells. The plant compounds also significantly down-regulated toxin production genes. Carvacrol and TC did not inhibit toxin production in the codY mutant of C. difficile, suggesting a potential codY-mediated anti-toxigenic mechanism of the plant compounds. The antitoxigenic concentrations of CR and TC did not inhibit the growth of beneficial gut bacteria. Our results suggest that CR and TC could potentially be used to control C. difficile, and warrant future studies in vivo.

In ovo probiotic supplementation supports hatchability and improves hatchling quality in broilers.

In modern broilers, the period of embryonic development constitutes a greater proportion of a broiler's productive life. Hence, optimum embryonic development can exert a significant influence not only on chick hatchability and hatchling quality but also on overall broiler growth and performance. Further healthy and active hatchlings are correlated with improved posthatch performance. In this regard, probiotics are good candidates to mediate early-life programming. Therefore, we evaluated the effect of In ovo probiotic spray application on broiler hatchability and hatchling quality. The experiment was set out as a completely randomized study with 2 independent trials. In each trial, 540 eggs (Ross 308) were either sprayed with phosphate buffered saline (PBS; control) or probiotics [∼9 log CFU/egg of Lactobacillus rhamnosus NRRL B-442(LR) or Lactobacillus paracasei DUP 13076 (LP)] during incubation. On day 18, eggs were transferred to the hatcher and set up for hatching. Starting on day 19, eggs were observed for hatching to determine the spread of hatch and hatchability. Hatched chicks were then assessed for quality using the Tona and Pasgar score and morphometric measurements including hatchling weight, yolk-free-body-mass and hatchling length were measured. Further, chicks were reared in floor pens for 3 wk to assess posthatch growth. Overall, In ovo probiotic supplementation improved hatchability and hatchling quality. Specifically, the spray application of LP improved hatchability by ∼ 5% without affecting the spread of hatch. Further, both LR and LP significantly improved Pasgar and Tona score, indicating an improvement in hatchling quality. Also, LP and LR significantly improved hatchling weight, yolk-free-body-mass, and posthatch growth in chicks. LR significantly improved hatchling weight and hatchling length (P < 0.05). Moreover, this increase in posthatch growth was positively correlated with hatchling weight in the probiotic groups. Overall, our study demonstrates that In ovo probiotic application exerts a positive effect on hatchability, hatchling quality, and subsequent posthatch growth.

Antibiofilm effect of plant derived antimicrobials on Listeria monocytogenes.

The present study investigated the efficacy of sub-inhibitory concentrations (SICs, concentrations not inhibiting bacterial growth) and bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) of four, generally recognized as safe (GRAS), plant-derived antimicrobials (PDAs) in inhibiting Listeria monocytogenes (LM) biofilm formation and inactivating mature LM biofilms, at 37, 25 and 4 °C on polystyrene plates and stainless-steel coupons. In addition, the effect of SICs of PDAs on the expression of LM genes critical for biofilm synthesis was determined by real-time quantitative PCR. The PDAs and their SICs used for inhibition of biofilm were trans-cinnamaldehyde (TC 0.50, 0.75 mM), carvacrol (CR 0.50, 0.65 mM), thymol (TY 0.33, 0.50 mM), and eugenol (EG 1.8, 2.5 mM), whereas the PDA concentrations used for inactivating mature biofilms were 5.0 and 10.0 mM (TC, CR), 3.3 and 5.0 mM (TY), 18.5 and 25.0 mM (EG). All PDAs inhibited biofilm synthesis and inactivated fully formed LM biofilms on both matrices at three temperatures tested (P < 0.05). Real-time quantitative PCR data revealed that all PDAs down-regulated critical LM biofilm-associated genes (P < 0.05). Results suggest that TC, CR, TY, and EG could potentially be used to control LM biofilms in food processing environments, although further studies under commercial settings are necessary.

Rapid inactivation of Salmonella Enteritidis on shell eggs by plant-derived antimicrobials.

Salmonella Enteritidis is a common foodborne pathogen transmitted to humans largely by consumption of contaminated eggs. The external surface of eggs becomes contaminated with Salmonella Enteritidis from various sources on farms, the main sources being hens' droppings and contaminated litter. Therefore, effective egg surface disinfection is critical to reduce pathogens on eggs and potentially control egg-borne disease outbreaks. This study investigated the efficacy of GRAS (generally recognized as safe) status, plant-derived antimicrobials (PDA), namely trans-cinnamaldehyde (TC), carvacrol (CR), and eugenol (EUG), as an antimicrobial wash for rapidly killing Salmonella Enteritidis on shell eggs in the presence or absence of chicken droppings. White-shelled eggs inoculated with a 5-strain mixture of nalidixic acid (NA) resistant Salmonella Enteritidis (8.0 log cfu/mL) were washed in sterile deionized water containing each PDA (0.0, 0.25, 0.5, or 0.75%) or chlorine (200 mg/kg) at 32 or 42°C for 30 s, 3 min, or 5 min. Approximately 6.0 log cfu/mL of Salmonella Enteritidis was recovered from inoculated and unwashed eggs. The wash water control and chlorine control decreased Salmonella Enteritidis on eggs by only 2.0 log cfu/mL even after washing for 5 min. The PDA were highly effective in killing Salmonella Enteritidis on eggs compared with controls (P < 0.05). All treatments containing CR and EUG reduced Salmonella Enteritidis to undetectable levels as rapidly as within 30 s of washing, whereas TC (0.75%) completely inactivated Salmonella Enteritidis on eggs washed at 42°C for 30 s (P < 0.05). No Salmonella Enteritidis was detected in any PDA or chlorine wash solution; however, substantial pathogen populations (~4.0 log cfu/mL) survived in the antibacterial-free control wash water (P < 0.05). The CR and EUG were also able to eliminate Salmonella Enteritidis on eggs to undetectable levels in the presence of 3% chicken droppings at 32°C (P < 0.05). This study demonstrates that PDA could effectively be used as a wash treatment to reduce Salmonella Enteritidis on shell eggs. Sensory and quality studies of PDA-washed eggs need to be conducted before recommending their use.

Effect of plant derived antimicrobials on Salmonella enteritidis adhesion to and invasion of primary chicken oviduct epithelial cells in vitro and virulence gene expression.

Salmonella Enteritidis (SE) is a major foodborne pathogen in the United States and one of the most frequently reported Salmonella serotypes globally. Eggs are the most common food product associated with SE infections in humans. The pathogen colonizes the intestinal tract in layers, and migrates to reproductive organs systemically. Since adhesion to and invasion of chicken oviduct epithelial cells (COEC) is critical for SE colonization in reproductive tract, reducing these virulence factors could potentially decrease egg yolk contamination. This study investigated the efficacy of sub-inhibitory concentrations of three plant-derived antimicrobials (PDAs), namely carvacrol, thymol and eugenol in reducing SE adhesion to and invasion of COEC, and survival in chicken macrophages. In addition, the effect of PDAs on SE genes critical for oviduct colonization and macrophage survival was determined using real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR). All PDAs significantly reduced SE adhesion to and invasion of COEC (p < 0.001). The PDAs, except thymol consistently decreased SE survival in macrophages (p < 0.001). RT-qPCR results revealed down-regulation in the expression of genes involved in SE colonization and macrophage survival (p < 0.001). The results indicate that PDAs could potentially be used to control SE colonization in chicken reproductive tract; however, in vivo studies validating these results are warranted.

Effect of plant-derived antimicrobials, eugenol, carvacrol, and ß-resorcylic acid against Salmonella on organic chicken wings and carcasses.

Organic poultry constitutes a sizeable segment of the American organic commodities market. However, processors have limited strategies that are safe, effective, and approved for improving the microbiological safety of products. In this study, the efficacy of 3 plant-derived antimicrobials (PDAs), eugenol (EG), carvacrol (CR), and ß-resorcylic acid (BR) was evaluated against Salmonella on organic chicken wings and carcasses. Wings inoculated with Salmonella (6 log10 CFU/wing) were treated with or without the treatments (BR [0.5%, 1% w/v], EG [0.5%, 1% v/v], CR [0.5%, 1% v/v], chlorine [CL; 200 ppm v/v], or peracetic acid [PA; 200 ppm v/v]) applied for 2 min at 54°C (scalding study) or 30 min at 4°C (chilling study). Homogenates and treatment water were evaluated for surviving Salmonella. Six wings or carcasses per treatment were analyzed in each study. All treatments, except CL and 0.5% BR in the scalding study, yielded significant reductions of Salmonella on wings compared to the positive control (PC-Salmonella inoculated samples not treated with antimicrobials). To follow, carcasses inoculated with Salmonella (higher inoculum [106 CFU/carcass] or lower inoculum [104 CFU/carcass]) and immersed in antimicrobials (CR 1% [v/v] and industry controls [CL {200 ppm}, or PA [200 ppm]) for 30 min at 4°C were stored until analysis. For the higher inoculum study, 1% CR resulted in a 3.9 log10 CFU/g reduction of Salmonella on the carcass on d 0 compared to PC (P < 0.05); however, CL yielded no reduction. On d 3, CR and PA resulted in 0.9 and 1.2 log10 CFU/g reduction of Salmonella, respectively (P < 0.05). For the lower inoculum study, consistent Salmonella reductions were obtained with CR and PA (1.4-2.1 log10 CFU/g) on d 0 and 7. High reductions of Salmonella in processing water were obtained in all studies. CR effectively controls Salmonella on wings and carcasses and in processing water immediately after application. Follow-up studies on the organoleptic characteristics of PDA-treated chicken carcasses are necessary.

Efficacy of octenidine hydrochloride for reducing Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella spp., and Listeria monocytogenes on cattle hides.

The efficacy of octenidine hydrochloride (OH; 0.025, 0.15, and 0.25%) for inactivating Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella spp., and Listeria monocytogenes on cattle hides was investigated at 23°C in the presence and absence of bovine feces. All tested concentrations of OH were effective in decreasing more than 5.0 log CFU of bacteria/cm(2) in 5 min (P < 0.01). The results suggest that OH could be used to decontaminate cattle hides; however, further studies under commercial settings are necessary to validate these results.

Reduction of Salmonella enterica serovar enteritidis colonization in 20-day-old broiler chickens by the plant-derived compounds trans-cinnamaldehyde and eugenol.

The efficacies of trans-cinnamaldehyde (TC) and eugenol (EG) for reducing Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis colonization in broiler chickens were investigated. In three experiments for each compound, 1-day-old chicks (n = 75/experiment) were randomly assigned to five treatment groups (n = 15/treatment group): negative control (-ve S. Enteritidis, -ve TC, or EG), compound control (-ve S. Enteritidis, +ve 0.75% [vol/wt] TC or 1% [vol/wt] EG), positive control (+ve S. Enteritidis, -ve TC, or EG), low-dose treatment (+ve S. Enteritidis, +ve 0.5% TC, or 0.75% EG), and high-dose treatment (+ve S. Enteritidis, +ve 0.75% TC, or 1% EG). On day 0, birds were tested for the presence of any inherent Salmonella (n = 5/experiment). On day 8, birds were inoculated with ∼8.0 log(10) CFU S. Enteritidis, and cecal colonization by S. Enteritidis was ascertained (n = 10 chicks/experiment) after 24 h (day 9). Six birds from each treatment group were euthanized on days 7 and 10 after inoculation, and cecal S. Enteritidis numbers were determined. TC at 0.5 or 0.75% and EG at 0.75 or 1% consistently reduced (P < 0.05) S. Enteritidis in the cecum (≥3 log(10) CFU/g) after 10 days of infection in all experiments. Feed intake and body weight were not different for TC treatments (P > 0.05); however, EG supplementation led to significantly lower (P < 0.05) body weights. Follow-up in vitro experiments revealed that the subinhibitory concentrations (SICs, the concentrations that did not inhibit Salmonella growth) of TC and EG reduced the motility and invasive abilities of S. Enteritidis and downregulated expression of the motility genes flhC and motA and invasion genes hilA, hilD, and invF. The results suggest that supplementation with TC and EG through feed can reduce S. Enteritidis colonization in chickens.

Survivability of Clostridioides difficile spores in fermented pork summer sausage during refrigerated storage.

Background and Aim: Clostridioides difficile is a spore-forming pathogen that causes serious enteric disease in humans. Strains have been isolated from food animals and meat, including pork, which suggest a potential for foodborne transmission. Pork summer sausage is a popular fermented meat product, which is consumed cooked or cooked to a lower internal temperature due to acidification of the product. The effect of acidity and cooking on the viability of C. difficile spores in a fermented meat product has not been determined. Therefore, the aim was to study the survivability of C. difficile spores in fermented pork summer sausage. Materials and Methods: Fermented pork sausages were prepared according to a commercial recipe with or without starter culture and C. difficile spores followed by fermentation at 37°C for ~12 h under 85% relative humidity until pH 5.0 was reached and further processed as cooked (>57°C) or uncooked (≤57°C) and stored at 4°C. C. difficile spores in sausages were enumerated at 1 h following inoculation and on days 0, 1, 7, 14, 21, 30, 60, and 90 of storage. Results: It was observed that C. difficile spore viability in control unfermented treatment was significantly different on day 0 from the fermented, fermented cooked, and control unfermented cooked treatments (p<0.05); however, there was no significant difference among the latter three treatment groups throughout 90 days of storage (p>0.05). On day 90 of storage, the unfermented control sausages yielded ~4.0 log colony-forming unit (CFU)/g of C. difficile spores compared to ~3.5 log CFU/g recovered from fermented samples and the unfermented cooked control samples identifying spore viability in all treatment groups. Conclusion: C. difficile spores were found to survive the acidity and cooking of fermented pork summer sausage and storage at 4°C for 3 months, thereby highlighting the need for effective intervention strategies to reduce the risk of C. difficile contamination in pork products.