Impact of HIV treat-all and complementary policies on ART linkage in 13 PEPFAR-supported African countries.

BACKGROUND: In 2015, the World Health Organization recommended that all people living with HIV begin antiretroviral treatment (ART) regardless of immune status, a policy known as 'Treat-All to end AIDS', commonly referred to as Treat-All. Almost all low- and middle-income countries adopted this policy by 2019. This study describes how linkage to treatment of newly diagnosed persons changed between 2015 and 2018 and how complementary policies may have similarly increased linkage for 13 African countries. These countries adopted and implemented Treat-All policies between 2015 and 2018 and were supported by the U.S. Government's President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR). The focuses of this research were to understand 1) linkage rates to ART initiation before and after the adoption of Treat-All in each country; 2) how Treat-All implementation differed across these countries; and 3) whether complementary policies (including same-day treatment initiation, task-shifting, reduced ART visits, and reduced ART pickups) implemented around the same time may have increased ART linkage. METHODS: HIV testing and treatment data were collected by PEPFAR country programs in 13 African countries from 2015 to 2018. These countries were chosen based on the completeness of policy data and availability of program data during the study period. Program data were used to calculate proxy linkage rates. These rates were compared relative to the Treat All adoption period and the adoption of complementary policies. RESULTS: The 13 countries experienced an average increase in ART linkage of 29.3% over the entire study period. In examining individual countries, all but two showed increases in linkage to treatment immediately after Treat All adoption. Across all countries, those that had adopted four or more complementary policies showed an average increased linkage of 39.8% compared to 13.9% in countries with fewer than four complementary policies. CONCLUSIONS: Eleven of 13 country programs examined in this study demonstrated an increase in ART linkage after Treat-All policy adoption. Increases in linkage were associated with complementary policies. When exploring new public health policies, policymakers may consider which complementary policies might also help achieve the desired outcome of the public health policy.

The development of task sharing policy and guidelines in Kenya.

BACKGROUND: The global critical shortage of health workers prevents expansion of healthcare services and universal health coverage. Like most countries in sub-Saharan Africa, Kenya's healthcare workforce density of 13.8 health workers per 10,000 population falls below the World Health Organization (WHO) recommendation of at least 44.5 doctors, nurses, and midwives per 10,000 population. In response to the health worker shortage, the WHO recommends task sharing, a strategy that can increase access to quality health services. To improve the utilization of human and financial health resources in Kenya for HIV and other essential health services, the Kenya Ministry of Health (MOH) in collaboration with various institutions developed national task sharing policy and guidelines (TSP). To advance task sharing, this article describes the process of developing, adopting, and implementing the Kenya TSP. CASE PRESENTATION: The development and approval of Kenya's TSP occurred from February 2015 to May 2017. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) allocated funding to Emory University through the United States President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) Advancing Children's Treatment initiative. After obtaining support from leadership in Kenya's MOH and health professional institutions, the TSP team conducted a desk review of policies, guidelines, scopes of practice, task analyses, grey literature, and peer-reviewed research. Subsequently, a Policy Advisory Committee was established to guide the process and worked collaboratively to form technical working groups that arrived at consensus and drafted the policy. The collaborative, multidisciplinary process led to the identification of gaps in service delivery resulting from health workforce shortages. This facilitated the development of the Kenya TSP, which provides a general orientation of task sharing in Kenya. The guidelines list priority tasks for sharing by various cadres as informed by evidence, such as HIV testing and counseling tasks. The TSP documents were disseminated to all county healthcare facilities in Kenya, yet implementation was stopped by order of the judiciary in 2019 after a legal challenge from an association of medical laboratorians. CONCLUSIONS: Task sharing may increase access to healthcare services in resource-limited settings. To advance task sharing, TSP and clinical practice could be harmonized, and necessary adjustments made to other policies that regulate practice (e.g., scopes of practice). Revisions to pre-service training curricula could be conducted to ensure health professionals have the requisite competencies to perform shared tasks. Monitoring and evaluation can help ensure that task sharing is implemented appropriately to ensure quality outcomes.

Policy considerations for scaling up access to HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis for adolescent girls and young women: Examples from Kenya, South Africa, and Uganda.

Adolescent girls and young women (aged 15-24 years; AGYW) continue to carry a disproportionate burden of HIV in sub-Saharan Africa. Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) helps reduce the risk of acquiring HIV for persons at substantial risk, including AGYW. As countries plan for the rollout of PrEP across sub-Saharan Africa, PrEP policies and programs could address the unique needs of AGYW. The purpose of this analysis was to identify policy considerations to improve AGYW access to PrEP. After reviewing the literature, we identified 13 policy considerations that policymakers and stakeholders could evaluate when developing or reviewing PrEP-related policies. We sorted these considerations into five categories, which together comprise an AGYW Access to PrEP Framework: AGYW-friendly delivery systems, clinical eligibility and adherence support, legal barriers and facilitators, affordability, and community and AGYW outreach. We also reviewed policies in three countries (Kenya, South Africa, and Uganda) to explore how PrEP-related policies addressed these considerations. Some of these policies addressed some of the 13 policy considerations, but none of the policies directly addressed the unique needs of AGYW for accessing PrEP. To improve access to PrEP for AGYW, country policies could include specific components that address these 13 considerations. To reach AGYW effectively, each country could use the 13 considerations we have identified to analyze current policies to identify existing programmatic barriers to AGYW accessing HIV services and address these barriers in PrEP-related policies.

Evaluation of the impact of the ARC program on national nursing and midwifery regulations, leadership, and organizational capacity in East, Central, and Southern Africa.

BACKGROUND: The African Health Professions Regulatory Collaborative (ARC) was launched in 2011 to support countries in East, Central, and Southern Africa to safely and sustainably expand HIV service delivery by nurses and midwives. While the World Health Organization recommended nurse initiated and managed antiretroviral therapy, many countries in this region had not updated their national regulations to ensure nurses and midwives were authorized and trained to provide essential HIV services. For four years, ARC awarded annual grants, convened regional meetings, and provided technical assistance to country teams of nursing and midwifery leaders to improve national regulations related to safe HIV service delivery. We examined the impact of the program on national regulations and the leadership and organizational capacity of country teams. METHODS: Data was collected to quantify the level of participation in ARC by each country (number of grants received, number of regional meetings attended, and amount of technical assistance received). The level of participation was analyzed according to two primary outcome measures: 1) changes in national regulations and 2) improvements in leadership and organizational capacity of country teams. Changes in national regulations were defined as advancement of one "stage" on a capability maturity model; nursing and midwifery leadership and organizational capacity was measured by a group survey at the end of the program. RESULTS: Seventeen countries participated in ARC between 2012 and 2016. Thirty-three grants were awarded; the majority addressed continuing professional development (20; 61%) and scopes of practice (6; 18%). Fourteen countries (representing approximately two-thirds of grants) progressed at least one stage on the capability maturity model. There were significant increases in all five domains of leadership and organizational capacity (p < 0.01). The number of grants (Kendall's tau = 0.56, p = 0.02), duration of technical assistance (Kendall's tau = 0.50, p = 0.03), and number of learning sessions attended (Kendall's tau = 0.46, p = 0.04) were significantly associated with improvements in in-country collaboration between nursing and midwifery organizations. CONCLUSIONS: The ARC program improved national nursing regulations in participating countries and increased reported leadership, organizational capacity, and collaboration among national nursing and midwifery organizations. These changes help ensure national policies and professional regulations underpin nurse initiated and managed treatment for people living with HIV.

Cross-sectional description of nursing and midwifery pre-service education accreditation in east, central, and southern Africa in 2013.

BACKGROUND: In 2013, the World Health Organization issued guidelines, Transforming and Scaling Up Health Professional Education and Training, to improve the quality and relevance of health professional pre-service education. Central to these guidelines was establishing and strengthening education accreditation systems. To establish what current accreditation systems were for nursing and midwifery education and highlight areas for strengthening these systems, a study was undertaken to document the pre-service accreditation policies, approaches, and practices in 16 African countries relative to the 2013 WHO guidelines. METHODS: This study utilized a cross-sectional group survey with a standardized questionnaire administered to a convenience sample of approximately 70 nursing and midwifery leaders from 16 countries in east, central, and southern Africa. Each national delegation completed one survey together, representing the responses for their country. RESULTS: Almost all countries in this study (15; 94%) mandated pre-service nursing education accreditation However, there was wide variation in who was responsible for accrediting programs. The percent of active programs accredited decreased by program level from 80% for doctorate programs to 62% for masters nursing to 50% for degree nursing to 35% for diploma nursing programs. The majority of countries indicated that accreditation processes were transparent (i.e., included stakeholder engagement (81%), self-assessment (100%), evaluation feedback (94%), and public disclosure (63%)) and that the processes were evaluated on a routine basis (69%). Over half of the countries (nine; 56%) reported limited financial resources as a barrier to increasing accreditation activities, and seven countries (44%) noted limited materials and technical expertise. CONCLUSION: In line with the 2013 WHO guidelines, there was a strong legal mandate for nursing education accreditation as compared to the global average of 50%. Accreditation levels were low in the programs that produce the majority of the nurses in this region and were higher in public programs than non-public programs. WHO guidelines for transparency and routine review were met more so than standards-based and independent accreditation processes. The new global strategy, Workforce 2030, has renewed the focus on accreditation and provides an opportunity to strengthen pre-service accreditation and ensure the production of a qualified and relevant nursing workforce.

The role of the law in reducing tuberculosis transmission in Botswana, South Africa and Zambia.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether laws and regulations in Botswana, South Africa and Zambia - three countries with a high tuberculosis and HIV infection burden - address elements of the World Health Organization (WHO) policy on tuberculosis infection control. METHODS: An online desk review of laws and regulations that address six selected elements of the WHO policy on tuberculosis infection control in the three countries was conducted in November 2015 using publicly available domestic legal databases. The six elements covered: (i) national policy and legal framework; (ii) health facility design, construction and use; (iii) tuberculosis disease surveillance among health workers; (iv) patients' and health workers' rights; (v) monitoring of infection control measures; and (vi) relevant research. FINDINGS: The six elements were found to be adequately addressed in the three countries' laws and regulations. In all three, tuberculosis case-reporting is required, as is tuberculosis surveillance among health workers. Each country's legal and regulatory framework also addresses the need to respect individuals' rights and privacy while safeguarding public health. These laws and regulations create a strong foundation for tuberculosis infection control. Although the legal and regulatory frameworks thoroughly address tuberculosis infection control, their dissemination, implementation and enforcement were not assessed, nor was their impact on public health. CONCLUSION: Laws and regulations in Botswana, South Africa and Zambia address all six selected elements of the WHO policy on tuberculosis infection control. However, the lack of data on their implementation is a limitation. Future research should assess the implementation and public health impact of laws and regulations.

Gender-Based Violence Laws in Ten African Countries with High HIV Prevalence and Incidence Among Adolescent Girls and Young Women.

To understand laws pertaining to gender-based violence (GBV) in countries with high HIV prevalence particularly among adolescent girls and young women (AGYW), we reviewed GBV laws and regulations from initial ten eastern and southern African countriesparticipating in the United States President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) Determined, Resilient, AIDS-free, Mentored, and Safe (DREAMS) Initiative and highlighted similarities and differences across these jurisdictions. All ten countries (Eswatini, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe) have GBV legislation in place but lack robust information on its implementation and enforcement. Given the known association between GBV and HIV acquisition among AGYW, an increased understanding of GBV laws, their variation across countries and respective gaps, as well as the interplay between enabling, protective, and punitive laws can strengthen policy environments for improved GBV prevention and response, which in turn can lower incidental HIV acquisition among AGYW. For greater impact, GBV policies would require reform, implementation, monitoring, and enforcement.

Information systems on human resources for health: a global review.

BACKGROUND: Although attainment of the health-related Millennium Development Goals relies on countries having adequate numbers of human resources for health (HRH) and their appropriate distribution, global understanding of the systems used to generate information for monitoring HRH stock and flows, known as human resources information systems (HRIS), is minimal. While HRIS are increasingly recognized as integral to health system performance assessment, baseline information regarding their scope and capability around the world has been limited. We conducted a review of the available literature on HRIS implementation processes in order to draw this baseline. METHODS: Our systematic search initially retrieved 11 923 articles in four languages published in peer-reviewed and grey literature. Following the selection of those articles which detailed HRIS implementation processes, reviews of their contents were conducted using two-person teams, each assigned to a national system. A data abstraction tool was developed and used to facilitate objective assessment. RESULTS: Ninety-five articles with relevant HRIS information were reviewed, mostly from the grey literature, which comprised 84 % of all documents. The articles represented 63 national HRIS and two regionally integrated systems. Whereas a high percentage of countries reported the capability to generate workforce supply and deployment data, few systems were documented as being used for HRH planning and decision-making. Of the systems examined, only 23 % explicitly stated they collect data on workforce attrition. The majority of countries experiencing crisis levels of HRH shortages (56 %) did not report data on health worker qualifications or professional credentialing as part of their HRIS. CONCLUSION: Although HRIS are critical for evidence-based human resource policy and practice, there is a dearth of information about these systems, including their current capabilities. The absence of standardized HRIS profiles (including documented processes for data collection, management, and use) limits understanding of the availability and quality of information that can be used to support effective and efficient HRH strategies and investments at the national, regional, and global levels.

HIV Policy Advancements in PEPFAR Partner countries: a review of data from 2010-2016.

This paper aims to describe and analyse progress with domestic HIV-related policies in PEPFAR partner countries, utilising data collected as part of PEPFAR's routine annual program reporting from U.S. government fiscal years 2010 through 2016. 402 policies were monitored for one or more years across more than 50 countries using the PEPFAR policy tracking tool across five policy process stages: 1. Problem identification, 2. Policy development, 3. Policy endorsement, 4. Policy implementation, and 5. Policy evaluation. This included 219 policies that were adopted and implemented by partner governments, many in Africa. Policies were tracked across a wide variety of subject matter areas, with HIV Testing and Treatment being the most common. Our review also illustrates challenges with policy reform using varied, national examples. Challenges include the length of time (often years) it may take to reform policies, local customs that may differ from policy goals, and insufficient public funding for policy implementation. Limitations included incomplete data, variability in the amount of data provided due to partial reliance on open-ended text boxes, and data that reflect the viewpoints of submitting PEPFAR country teams.

Social distancing policies in 22 African countries during the COVID-19 pandemic: a desk review.

INTRODUCTION: on January 30, 2020, the World Health Organization declared the novel coronavirus outbreak a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. As of October 5, 2020, there were over 34.8 million reported cases of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and more than 1 million reported deaths from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), globally. Non-pharmaceutical interventions, such as social distancing policies, hand hygiene, and mask use, are key public health measures to control COVID-19. In response to, or in some cases even before, the first wave of SARS-CoV-2 infections were reported in their countries, policy makers across Africa issued various social distancing policies. METHODS: we describe social distancing policies issued from March 1 to April 24, 2020 in 22 Anglophone countries of sub-Saharan Africa. We reviewed policies identified online. RESULTS: though all 22 countries closed schools and banned gatherings, they took a variety of approaches to sizes of gatherings banned and to stay-at-home orders, with 13 countries issuing national stay-at-home orders, four issuing subnational stay-at-home orders, and five not issuing stay-at-home orders. Enforcement provisions varied by country, as did funeral and health care exceptions. CONCLUSION: movement restrictions, business restrictions, and school closures can have substantial negative impacts on economies, education, nutrition, and routine health care. Yet easing or lifting of COVID-19 social distancing policies can lead to increased transmission. Our review documents a wide variety of policy alternatives used in Africa and can inform future adjustments as countries ease, lift, and reapply measures in response to their evolving epidemics.

National Public Health Institute Legal Framework: A Tool to Build Public Health Capacity.

As countries face public health emergencies, building public health capacity to prevent, detect, and respond to threats is a priority. In recent years, national public health institutes (NPHIs) have emerged to play a critical role in strengthening public health systems and to accelerate and achieve implementation of the International Health Regulations (IHR 2005). NPHIs are science-based government institutions that provide national leadership and expertise for the country's efforts to protect and improve health. Providing a Legal Framework for a National Public Health Institute is a recently released Africa CDC publication intended to support NPHI development throughout Africa. Here we present a legal mapping analysis of sampled legal domains for 5 countries, using the "Menu of Considerations for an NPHI Legal Framework." The analysis delineates the types of legal authorities countries may use to establish or enhance NPHIs and demonstrates how legal mapping can be used to review legal instruments for NPHIs. It also demonstrates variability among legal approaches countries take to establish and enable public health functions for NPHIs. This article examines how the legal framework and menu of considerations can help countries understand the nuances around creating and implementing the laws that will govern their organizations and how countries can better engage stakeholders to identify or address potential areas for opportunity where law may be used as a tool to strengthen public health infrastructure.

Regulatory Advances in 11 Sub-Saharan Countries in Year 3 of the African Health Profession Regulatory Collaborative for Nurses and Midwives (ARC).

Sub-Saharan Africa carries the greatest burden of the HIV pandemic. Enhancing the supply and use of human resources through policy and regulatory reform is a key action needed to improve the quality of HIV services in this region. In year 3 of the African Health Profession Regulatory Collaborative for Nurses and Midwives (ARC), a President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief initiative, 11 country teams of nursing and midwifery leaders ("Quads") received small grants to carry out regulatory improvement projects. Four countries advanced a full stage on the Regulatory Function Framework (RFF), a staged capability maturity model used to evaluate progress in key regulatory functions. While the remaining countries did not advance a full stage on the RFF, important gains were noted. The year-3 evaluation highlighted limitations of the ARC evaluation strategy to capture nuanced progress and provided insight into how the RFF might be adapted for future use.

Monitoring HIV and AIDS Related Policy Reforms: A Road Map to Strengthen Policy Monitoring and Implementation in PEPFAR Partner Countries.

Achieving an AIDS-free generation will require the adoption and implementation of critical health policy reforms. However, countries with high HIV burden often have low policy development, advocacy, and monitoring capacity. This lack of capacity may be a significant barrier to achieving the AIDS-free generation goals. This manuscript describes the increased focus on policy development and implementation by the United States President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR). It evaluates the curriculum and learning modalities used for two regional policy capacity building workshops organized around the PEPFAR Partnership Framework agreements and the Road Map for Monitoring and Implementing Policy Reforms. A total of 64 participants representing the U.S. Government, partner country governments, and civil society organizations attended the workshops. On average, participants responded that their policy monitoring skills improved and that they felt they were better prepared to monitor policy reforms three months after the workshop. When followed-up regarding utilization of the Road Map action plan, responses were mixed. Reasons cited for not making progress included an inability to meet or a lack of time, personnel, or governmental support. This lack of progress may point to a need for building policy monitoring systems in high HIV burden countries. Because the success of policy reforms cannot be measured by the mere adoption of written policy documents, monitoring the implementation of policy reforms and evaluating their public health impact is essential. In many high HIV burden countries, policy development and monitoring capacity remains weak. This lack of capacity could hinder efforts to achieve the ambitious AIDS-free generation treatment, care and prevention goals. The Road Map appears to be a useful tool for strengthening these critical capacities.

Legal and regulatory framework for health worker retention in Mozambique: Public health law research to strengthen health systems and services.

Realizing the fundamental contribution of human resources to public health, the World Health Organization (WHO) issued policy recommendations for health worker retention. We reviewed Mozambique's laws and regulations and assessed the extent to which this legal and regulatory framework governing public sector health workers aligns with the WHO health worker retention recommendations. We provide guidance for future analysis of non-binding policies that may fill gaps identified in our review. We also indicate how to link legal analysis to the cycle by which research informs policy, policy informs practice, and practice leads to improvements in health systems and population health. Finally, we demonstrate the relevance of understanding and analyzing the impact of domestic laws on global health. Future research should assess implementation of health worker allowances and any associations with increased hiring, more equitable distribution, and improved retention - all are essential to public health in Mozambique.Journal of Public Health Policy advance online publication, 26 May 2016; doi:10.1057/jphp.2016.22.

National nursing and midwifery legislation in countries of South-East Asia with high HIV burdens.

This paper analyses nursing and midwifery legislation in high HIV-burden countries of the World Health Organization (WHO) South-East Asia Region, with respect to global standards, and suggests areas that could be further examined to strengthen the nursing and midwifery professions and HIV service delivery. To provide universal access to HIV/AIDS prevention, care and treatment, sufficient numbers of competent human resources for health are required. Competence in this context means possession and use of requisite knowledge and skills to fulfil the role delineated in scopes of practice. Traditionally, the purpose of professional regulation has been to set standards that ensure the competence of practising health workers, such as nurses and midwives. One particularly powerful form of professional regulation is assessed here: national legislation in the form of nursing and midwifery acts. Five countries of the WHO South-East Asia Region account for more than 99% of the region's HIV burden: India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Nepal and Thailand. Online legislative archives were searched to obtain the most recent national nursing and midwifery legislation from these five countries. Indonesia was the only country included in this review without a national nursing and midwifery act. The national nursing and midwifery acts of India, Myanmar, Nepal and Thailand were all fairly comprehensive, containing between 15 and 20 of the 21 elements in the International Council of Nurses Model Nursing Act. Legislation in Myanmar and Thailand partially delineates nursing scopes of practice, thereby providing greater clarity concerning professional expectations. Continuing education was the only element not included in any of these four countries' legislation. Countries without a nursing and midwifery act may consider developing one, in order to facilitate professional regulation of training and practice. Countries considering reform to their existing nursing acts may benefit from comparing their legislation with that of other similarly situated countries and with global standards. Countries interested in improving the sustainability of scale-up for HIV services may benefit from a greater understanding of the manner in which nursing and midwifery is regulated, be it through continuing education, scopes of practice or other relevant requirements for training, registration and licensing.

Development of a framework to measure health profession regulation strengthening.

This paper describes the development of a framework to evaluate the progress and impact of a multi-year US government initiative to strengthen nursing and midwifery professional regulation in sub-Saharan Africa. The framework was designed as a capability maturity model, which is a stepwise series of performance levels that describe the sophistication of processes necessary to achieve an organization's objectives. A model from the field of software design was adapted to comprise the key functions of a nursing and midwifery regulatory body and describe five stages of advancing each function. The framework was used to measure the progress of five countries that received direct assistance to strengthen regulations and to benchmark the status of regulations in the 17 countries participating in the initiative. The framework captured meaningful advancements in regulatory strengthening in the five supported countries and the level of regulatory capacity in participating countries. The project uses the framework to assess yearly progress of supported countries, track the overall impact of the project on national and regional nursing regulation, and to identify national and regional priorities for regulatory strengthening. It is the first of its kind to document and measure progress toward sustainably strengthening nursing and midwifery regulation in Africa.

The African Health Profession Regulatory Collaborative (ARC) at two years.

BACKGROUND: The African Health Profession Regulatory Collaborative (ARC) for nurses and midwives was created in response to the increasing reliance on shifting HIV tasks to nurses and midwives without the necessary regulation supporting this enhanced professional role. ARC. APPROACH: The ARC initiative comprises regional meetings, technical assistance, and regulatory improvement grants which enhance HIV service delivery by nurses and midwives, and systematic evaluation of project impact. RESULTS: Eight of 11 countries funded by ARC advanced a full stage in regulatory capacity during their 1-year project period. Countries in ARC also demonstrated increased capacity in project management and proposal writing. DISCUSSION: The progress of country teams thus far suggests ARC is a successful model for regulation strengthening and capacity building, as well as presenting a novel approach for sustainability and country ownership. The ARC platform has been a successful vehicle for regional harmonisation of updated regulations and promises to help facilitate the enhancement of HIV service delivery by nurses and midwives.

A survey of nurse-initiated and -managed antiretroviral therapy (NIMART) in practice, education, policy, and regulation in east, central, and southern Africa.

In sub-Saharan Africa, nurses and midwives perform many HIV service delivery tasks, such as diagnosis of HIV and prescription of antiretroviral therapy (ART), which used to be the responsibility of physicians. While this task shifting is critical to scaling-up HIV services in Africa, the extent of HIV task shifting is not well understood. A survey of senior nursing leadership teams from 15 African countries was carried out to describe the extent of nurse-initiated and -managed antiretroviral therapy (NIMART) in practice, education, policy, and regulation. The survey took place at the African Health Professions Regulatory Collaborative meeting in Pretoria, South Africa, in June 2012. The findings indicated that NIMART is widely practiced and authorized in policy, but is not reinforced by regulation nor incorporated into preservice education. Further investment in policy, regulation, and pre-service education is needed to ensure sustainable, high quality ART service expansion through the region.

Law and pediatric HIV testing: realizing the right to health in Kenya.

Realization of the right to health occurs along a continuum including national ratification of international treaties such as the Convention on the Rights of the Child, passage of domestic laws and policies that may specify modes of implementation and enforcement such as Kenya's Constitution and HIV and AIDS Prevention and Control Act, and actual implementation of domestic laws and policies such as through the regulation and delivery of health services. The stages heuristic theoretical framework describes the public policy continuum as consisting of marked stages: agenda setting, policy formulation, policy implementation, and evaluation. This case study illustrates the continuum in Kenya with regard to pediatric HIV testing. Kenya has made progress applying law, policy, and science to reduce vertical transmission of HIV and increase HIV testing of infants, although several challenges remain. Progress in policy implementation may reduce mother-to-child transmission and increase pediatric HIV testing.

Law and pediatric HIV testing: realizing the right to health in Kenya.

Realization of the right to health occurs along a continuum including national ratification of international treaties such as the Convention on the Rights of the Child, passage of domestic laws and policies that may specify modes of implementation and enforcement such as Kenya's Constitution and HIV and AIDS Prevention and Control Act, and actual implementation of domestic laws and policies such as through the regulation and delivery of health services. The stages heuristic theoretical framework describes the public policy continuum as consisting of marked stages: agenda setting, policy formulation, policy implementation, and evaluation. This case study illustrates the continuum in Kenya with regard to pediatric HIV testing. Kenya has made progress applying law, policy, and science to reduce vertical transmission of HIV and increase HIV testing of infants, although several challenges remain. Progress in policy implementation may reduce mother-to-child transmission and increase pediatric HIV testing.