Early recognition of sudden cardiac arrest in athletes during sports activity.

INTRODUCTION: Sudden cardiac arrest (SCA) in athletes is an unexpected life-threatening event, which is often not recognised early and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is not always initiated immediately. We describe key features to rapidly recognise non-traumatic SCA in athletes during sports activity. METHODS: We reviewed videos and images of athletes suffering from non-traumatic SCA during sports activity. We searched Google images, Google videos and YouTube.com using the keywords 'sudden cardiac death athlete' and 'resuscitation athlete'. We analysed (1) the athlete's performance before syncope, (2) the athlete's performance at the start of syncope, (3) the position of the body, and (4) the athlete's facial expressions before CPR. We analysed our data by describing these four features to answer our research question. RESULTS: We analysed the sequence of events in six well-known soccer players in whom a camera-witnessed non-traumatic SCA occurred during their athletic activity. All six athletes showed no changes before syncope. Four became unstable while standing and unexpectedly collapsed falling on their back. Two suddenly 'dropped dead' and fell face down. All six had their eyes wide open with a fixed gaze and fixed pupils. CONCLUSIONS: Sudden unexpected loss of consciousness in an athlete in action and a fixed gaze eye position are key features of SCA. Immediate cardiac massage should follow. The described features to immediately recognise SCA in athletes during sports activity should be taught to everyone involved in athletic activity leading to earlier recognition of SCA followed by earlier CPR.

Real-time imaging of apoptotic cell-membrane changes at the single-cell level in the beating murine heart.

We report a novel real-time imaging model to visualize apoptotic membrane changes of single cardiomyocytes in the injured heart of the living mouse, using fluorescent labeled annexin-V. Annexin-V binds to externalized phosphatidylserine (PS) of cells undergoing programmed cell death. With high-magnification (x100-160) real-time imaging, we visualized the binding of annexin-V to single cardiomyocytes. Kinetic studies at the single-cell level revealed that cardiomyocytes started to bind annexin-V within minutes after reperfusion, following an ischemic period of 30 minutes. The amount of bound annexin-V increased rapidly and reached a maximum within 20-25 minutes. Caspase inhibitors decreased the number of annexin-V-positive cardiomyocytes and slowed down the rate of PS exposure of cardiomyocytes that still bound annexin-V. This technology to study cell biology in the natural environment will enhance knowledge of intracellular signaling pathways relevant for cell-death regulation and strategies to manipulate these pathways for therapeutic effect.

Are electrophysiological changes induced by longer lasting atrial fibrillation reversible? :observations using the atrial defibrillator.

BACKGROUND: Studies in animal hearts have shown shortening of the atrial effective refractory period (AERP) and loss of the relation between the AERP and heart rate after prolonged periods of atrial fibrillation (AF). The purposes of this study were (1) to evaluate atrial electrophysiology after a long period of sinus rhythm in patients who had longer lasting recurrent AF that was successfully treated with the Metrix Atrioverter and (2) to analyze the effect of prompt cardioversion on subsequent AF episodes and the duration of sinus rhythm. METHODS AND RESULTS: Four patients with recurrent AF (duration, 3 to 21 years; mean+/-SD, 13+/-7.6 years) were studied after the implantation of an Atrioverter. The Atrioverter stores and analyzes 3 minutes of cardiac rhythm every hour. Before implantation, AERP was measured. During a mean follow-up of 14 months, 52 spontaneous (39 treated and 18 nontreated) AF episodes occurred while the patients were on antiarrhythmic drugs. All patients were electrophysiologically studied after they had been in sinus rhythm for at least 1000 hours (range, 1052 to 2675 hours). Before Atrioverter implantation, AF was induced by 1 atrial premature beat in 3 patients and not induced in the remaining patient. After a long period in sinus rhythm (>1000 hours), AF could be induced in the same 3 patients in the same way as before implantation. In the patient in whom no AF was induced, right AERP values measured using the single extrastimulus technique at 3 pacing cycle lengths (600, 500, and 430 ms) were similar to those before implantation. CONCLUSIONS: AF was still inducible by a single atrial premature beat after long episodes of sinus rhythm in 3 of 4 patients with previously longer lasting AF. In the patient in whom no AF was induced, AERP behaved like it did before implantation. In these patients with longer lasting recurrent AF, no return to "normal" atrial electrophysiology could be demonstrated.

Biatrial activation in isthmus-dependent atrial flutter.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to determine the biatrial activation pattern in isthmus-dependent atrial flutter (AFL) to understand the functional interatrial connections and the activation pattern of the left atrium (LA). METHODS AND RESULTS: Biatrial activation was performed, using an electroanatomic mapping system, in 10 patients undergoing right atrial isthmus ablation for counterclockwise (n=7) or clockwise (n=3) AFL. The AFL circuit was peritricuspid and propagated slowly (0.5+/-0.2 m/s) through the isthmus. LA was activated by two wave fronts, with discrete breakthroughs in the superior, mid, or inferior atrial septum. The activation of LA overlapped 50+/-16% of the AFL cycle length. In counterclockwise AFL, at least one breakthrough was located in the inferior atrial septum. LA activation began immediately after the exit of the flutter wave from the isthmus and was directed inferosuperiorly in all patients, being synchronous with the atrial septal activation. The septal breakthroughs in patients with clockwise AFL were variably located. The direction of LA activation was superoinferior in 2 and inferosuperior in 1 patient. CONCLUSIONS: The circuit of isthmus-dependent AFL was entirely in the right atrium. LA activation was a bystander and followed trans-septal conduction across the inferior coronary sinus-LA connection, Bachmann's bundle, and/or fossa ovalis.

Use of sedation during cardioversion with the implantable atrial defibrillator.

BACKGROUND: The low shock energy used during internal atrial defibrillation may decrease the need for sedation during defibrillation with an implantable atrial defibrillator. METHODS AND RESULTS: The atrial defibrillator (Metrix Atrioverter) was implanted in 12 patients. During the in-hospital treatment of atrial fibrillation (AF) episodes, intravenous sedation was given only on patient request. The Atrioverter was programmed for ambulatory therapy in 4 patients. Efficacy, number of shocks delivered, and sedation requirements were recorded. A total of 393 shocks (1.8+/-1. 6 shocks/AF episode) were delivered to treat 213 AF episodes; 85 of 213 AF episodes (40%) were treated away from the hospital. Sinus rhythm was restored in 195 AF episodes (92%). Five patients never requested sedation. No sedation was needed for ambulatory-treated AF episodes. During the treatment of 26 of 213 AF episodes (12%), 75 shocks were delivered after patients received sedation. The number of shocks required to treat an AF episode determined the need for sedation (4.3+/-2.1 shocks for AF episodes requiring sedation versus 2+/-1 shocks for AF episodes requiring no sedation; P<0.001). These additional shocks were needed to treat immediate reinitiation of AF (14 episodes) or initial failure to cardiovert (4 episodes). For 8 AF episodes, sedation was requested before the first shock. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that, in a selected group of patients, AF can be treated with Atrioverter therapy without sedation. Successful ambulatory treatment of AF episodes with the Atrioverter, programmed to deliver

Repolarizing K+ currents ITO1 and IKs are larger in right than left canine ventricular midmyocardium.

BACKGROUND: The ventricular action potential exhibits regional heterogeneity in configuration and duration (APD). Across the left ventricular (LV) free wall, this is explained by differences in repolarizing K+ currents. However, the ionic basis of electrical nonuniformity in the right ventricle (RV) versus the LV is poorly investigated. We examined transient outward (ITO1), delayed (IKs and IKr), and inward rectifier K+ currents (IK1) in relation to action potential characteristics of RV and LV midmyocardial (M) cells of the same adult canine hearts. METHODS AND RESULTS: Single RV and LV M cells were used for microelectrode recordings and whole-cell voltage clamping. Action potentials showed deeper notches, shorter APDs at 50% and 95% of repolarization, and less prolongation on slowing of the pacing rate in RV than LV. ITO1 density was significantly larger in RV than LV, whereas steady-state inactivation and rate of recovery were similar. IKs tail currents, measured at -25 mV and insensitive to almokalant (2 micromol/L), were considerably larger in RV than LV. IKr, measured as almokalant-sensitive tail currents at -50 mV, and IK1 were not different in the 2 ventricles. CONCLUSIONS: Differences in K+ currents may well explain the interventricular heterogeneity of action potentials in M layers of the canine heart. These results contribute to a further phenotyping of the ventricular action potential under physiological conditions.

Isoproterenol to evaluate resumption of conduction after right atrial isthmus ablation in type I atrial flutter.

BACKGROUND: After radiofrequency (RF) ablation of atrial flutter (AFL), the demonstration of bidirectional isthmus conduction (BIC) block is considered the hallmark of a successful procedure. The purpose of our study was to test the persistence of BIC block after isoproterenol administration and to evaluate the importance of this finding with regard to AFL recurrences. METHODS AND RESULTS: RF ablation of AFL was performed in 44 consecutive patients with type I AFL by linear ablation of the posterior isthmus (n=29 patients), septal isthmus (n=4 patients), or both right atrial (RA) isthmi (n=11 patients). The procedural end point was complete BIC block and noninducibility of AFL. In case of noninducibility and apparent BIC block, the pacing protocol was repeated under isoproterenol infusion (1 to 3 microgram/min). Reversal of apparent BIC block occurred in 7 (15.9%) of 44 patients. Six patients had bidirectional and 1 had unidirectional resumption of isthmus conduction. Counterclockwise AFL could be reinduced in 4 of these patients. Two to 24 (median, 4) additional RF applications were required to achieve permanent BIC block. At a mean follow-up of 7.3+/-7.6 months (range, 2 to 31 months), 2 (4.5%) of 44 patients had AFL recurrences. CONCLUSIONS: Partial linear RF ablation could possibly aggravate preexisting nonuniform anisotropic conduction in the RA isthmus, resulting in profound conduction slowing and apparent BIC block. Isoproterenol can unmask apparent BIC block, thus providing an opportunity to assess the possibility of reversal of BIC block and completeness of isthmus ablation during the same procedure. The low incidence (4.5%) of AFL recurrences at follow-up suggests that noninducibility and BIC block under isoproterenol infusion may be a better end point for successful AFL ablation.

17beta-estradiol attenuates the development of pressure-overload hypertrophy.

BACKGROUND: Cardiac hypertrophy is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in men and in women. Epidemiological studies indicate that estrogen replacement therapy is cardioprotective; the mechanisms involved in this process, however, are poorly understood. We therefore studied the effect of 17beta-estradiol (E(2)) on the development of pressure-overload hypertrophy. METHODS AND RESULTS: Ovariectomized mice receiving E(2) or placebo underwent transverse aortic constriction (TAC) or sham operation. TAC led to a significant increase in ventricular mass compared with sham operation. E(2) treatment reduced cardiac hypertrophy by 31% and 26% compared with placebo 4 and 8 weeks after TAC, whereas it had no effect on the degree of pressure overload, as determined by hemodynamic measurements. Furthermore, E(2) blocked the increased phosphorylation of p38-mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) observed in the placebo-treated animals with TAC. No differences were observed in the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2 and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) 1/2 between the groups. E(2) had no effect on the expression of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) or the angiotensin II type 1 receptor. Ventricular atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) expression was detected only in the animals with TAC. Compared with placebo, E(2) treatment led to an increased expression of ANP in animals with pressure overload. CONCLUSIONS: Here, we show that E(2) attenuates the hypertrophic response to pressure overload in mice. This observation demonstrates that hormone replacement therapy with E(2) has direct effects on the heart and may be beneficial in the treatment of postmenopausal women to reduce cardiac hypertrophy.

Downregulation of delayed rectifier K(+) currents in dogs with chronic complete atrioventricular block and acquired torsades de pointes.

BACKGROUND: Acquired QT prolongation enhances the susceptibility to torsades de pointes (TdP). Clinical and experimental studies indicate ventricular action potential prolongation, increased regional dispersion of repolarization, and early afterdepolarizations as underlying factors. We examined whether K(+)-current alterations contribute to these proarrhythmic responses in an animal model of TdP: the dog with chronic complete atrioventricular block (AVB) and biventricular hypertrophy. METHODS AND RESULTS: The whole-cell K(+) currents I(TO1), I(K1), I(Kr), and I(Ks) were recorded in left (LV) and right (RV) ventricular midmyocardial cells from dogs with 9+/-1 weeks of AVB and controls with sinus rhythm. I(TO1) density and kinetics and I(K1) outward current were not different between chronic AVB and control cells. I(Kr) had a similar voltage dependence of activation and time course of deactivation in chronic AVB and control. I(Kr) density was similar in LV myocytes but smaller in RV myocytes (-45%) of chronic AVB versus control. For I(Ks), voltage-dependence of activation and time course of deactivation were similar in chronic AVB and control. However, I(Ks) densities of LV (-50%) and RV (-55%) cells were significantly lower in chronic AVB than control. CONCLUSIONS: Significant downregulation of delayed rectifier K(+) current occurs in both ventricles of the dog with chronic AVB. Acquired TdP in this animal model with biventricular hypertrophy is thus related to intrinsic repolarization defects.

Contractile adaptations preserving cardiac output predispose the hypertrophied canine heart to delayed afterdepolarization-dependent ventricular arrhythmias.

BACKGROUND: In dogs, chronic complete atrioventricular block (CAVB) results in structural (biventricular hypertrophy) and electrical (delayed repolarization) remodeling, which predisposes the heart to torsade de pointes arrhythmias. We assessed the contractile alterations in the CAVB dog and tested the hypothesis that these adaptations increase delayed afterdepolarization (DAD)-dependent triggered arrhythmias. METHODS AND RESULTS: Steady-state and dynamic (fast pacing: 1 to 68 stimuli) left and right ventricular systolic and diastolic parameters were determined by positive and negative inotropic interventions at acute AVB and CAVB. Concomitantly, left and right ventricular endocardial monophasic action potentials were registered. In CAVB, all systolic contractile parameters were markedly increased, resulting in preserved cardiac output. The increase was most pronounced at low heart rates, altering the force-frequency response. At both acute AVB and CAVB, the degree of potentiation of cardiac function with pacing was dependent on the number of stimuli and showed a maximum at 8 to 13 stimuli. With CAVB, this potentiation curve was shifted upward, and it was only then that pacing resulted in DADs (in 8 of 10 dogs) and ectopic beats (EBs, in 6 of 10 dogs). The incidence of EBs in relation to the number of stimuli also had a maximum at 8 to 13 stimuli. Ouabain increased the incidence of DADs and EBs, whereas the negative inotropic interventions prevented them completely. CONCLUSIONS: The alterations responsible for improvement in systolic contractile function in CAVB dogs predispose the hypertrophied heart to DAD-dependent triggered arrhythmias during positive inotropic interventions.

Enhanced Ca(2+) release and Na/Ca exchange activity in hypertrophied canine ventricular myocytes: potential link between contractile adaptation and arrhythmogenesis.

BACKGROUND: Ventricular arrhythmias are a major cause of sudden death in patients with heart failure and hypertrophy. The dog with chronic complete atrioventricular block (CAVB) has biventricular hypertrophy and ventricular arrhythmias and is a useful model to study underlying cellular mechanisms. We investigated whether changes in Ca(2+) homeostasis are part of the contractile adaptation to CAVB and might contribute to arrhythmogenesis. METHODS AND RESULTS: In enzymatically isolated myocytes, cell shortening, Ca(2+) release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), and SR Ca(2+) content were enhanced at low stimulation frequencies. Ca(2+) influx through L-type Ca(2+) channels was unchanged, but Ca(2+) influx via the Na/Ca exchanger was increased and contributed to Ca(2+) loading of the SR. Inward Na/Ca exchange currents were also larger. Changes in Ca(2+) fluxes were less pronounced in the right versus left ventricle. CONCLUSIONS: Enhanced Na/Ca exchange activity may improve contractile adaptation to CAVB but at the same time facilitate arrhythmias by (1) increasing the propensity to Ca(2+) overload, (2) providing more inward current leading to (nonhomogeneous) action potential prolongation, and (3) enhancing (arrhythmogenic) currents during spontaneous Ca(2+) release.

Effect of butorphanol tartrate on shock-related discomfort during internal atrial defibrillation.

BACKGROUND: In patients with atrial fibrillation, intracardiac atrial defibrillation causes discomfort. An easily applicable, short-acting analgesic and anxiolytic drug would increase acceptability of this new treatment mode. METHODS AND RESULTS: In a double-blind, placebo-controlled manner, the effect of intranasal butorphanol, an opioid, was evaluated in 47 patients with the use of a step-up internal atrial defibrillation protocol (stage I). On request, additional butorphanol was administered and the step-up protocol continued (stage II). Thereafter, if necessary, patients were intravenously sedated (stage III). After each shock, the McGill Pain Questionnaire was used to obtain a sensory (S), affective (A), evaluative (E), and total (T) pain rating index (PRI) and a visual analogue scale analyzing pain (VAS-P) and fear (VAS-F). For every patient, the slope of each pain or fear parameter against the shock number was calculated and individual slopes were averaged for the placebo and butorphanol group. All patients were cardioverted at a mean threshold of 4.4+/-3.3 J. Comparing both patient groups for stage II, the mean slopes for PRI-T (P=0.0099), PRI-S (P=0.019), and PRI-E (P=0.015) became significantly lower in the butorphanol group than in the placebo group. Comparing patients who received the same shock intensity ending stage I and going to stage II, in those patients randomized to placebo the mean VAS-P (P=0.023), PRI-T (P=0. 029), PRI-S (P=0.030), and PRI-E (P=0.023) became significantly lower after butorphanol administration. CONCLUSIONS: During a step-up internal atrial defibrillation protocol, intranasal butorphanol decreased or stabilized the value of several pain variables and did not affect fear. Of the 3 qualitative components of pain, only the affective component was not influenced by butorphanol. The PRI evaluated pain more accurately than the VAS.

Cardiomyocyte death induced by myocardial ischemia and reperfusion: measurement with recombinant human annexin-V in a mouse model.

INTRODUCTION: Phosphatidylserine (PS) externalization is regarded as one of the earliest hallmarks of cells undergoing programmed cell death. We studied the use of labeled human recombinant annexin-V, a protein selectively binding to PS, to detect cardiomyocyte death in an in vivo mouse model of cardiac ischemia and reperfusion (I/R). METHODS AND RESULTS: I/R was induced in mouse hearts by ligation and subsequent release of a suture around the left anterior descending coronary artery. Annexin-V (25 mg/kg) fused to a marker molecule was injected intra-arterially 30 minutes before euthanasia. After 15 minutes of ischemia followed by 30 minutes of reperfusion, 1.4+/-1. 2% (mean+/-SD) of the cardiomyocytes in the area at risk were annexin-V positive (n=6). This increased to 11.4+/-1.9% after 15 minutes of ischemia followed by 90 minutes of reperfusion (n=7) and to 20.2+/-3.3% after 30 minutes of ischemia followed by 90 minutes of reperfusion (n=7). In control mice, including those injected with annexin-V at the binding site of PS, no annexin-V-positive cells were observed. DNA gel electrophoresis showed typical laddering starting after 15 minutes of ischemia followed by 30 minutes of reperfusion, suggesting activation of the cell death program. Intervention in the cell death program by pretreatment with a novel Na(+)-H(+) exchange inhibitor substantially decreased annexin-V-positive cardiomyocytes from 20.2% to 2.2% in mice after 30 minutes of ischemia followed by 90 minutes of reperfusion. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that labeled annexin-V is useful for in situ detection of cell death in an in vivo model of I/R in the heart and for the evaluation of cell death-blocking strategies.

Chronic amiodarone evokes no torsade de pointes arrhythmias despite QT lengthening in an animal model of acquired long-QT syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Amiodarone is an effective antiarrhythmic drug rarely associated with torsade de pointes arrhythmias (TdP). The noniodinated compound dronedarone could resemble amiodarone and be devoid of the adverse effects. In the dog with chronic complete atrioventricular (AV) block (CAVB) and acquired long-QT syndrome, the electrophysiological and proarrhythmic properties of the drugs were compared after 4 weeks of oral treatment. METHODS AND RESULTS: Amiodarone (n=7, 40 mg. kg(-1). d(-1)) and dronedarone (n=8, 20 mg/kg BID) were started at 6 weeks of CAVB (baseline). Six dogs served as controls. Surface ECGs and endocardially placed monophasic action potential catheters in the left (LV) and right (RV) ventricles were recorded to assess QTc time, action potential duration (APD), interventricular dispersion (DeltaAPD=LV APD minus RV APD), early afterdepolarizations (EADs), ectopic beats, and TdP. Both amiodarone (+21%) and dronedarone (+31%) increased QTc time. Amiodarone showed no increase in DeltaAPD in 4 of 7 dogs, whereas dronedarone augmented DeltaAPD in 7 of 8 animals. After dronedarone, TdP occurred in 4 of 8 dogs with the highest DeltaAPD (105+/-20 ms). TdP was never seen with amiodarone, not even in the dogs that had DeltaAPD values comparable to those with dronedarone. Furthermore, a difference existed in EADs and ectopic activity incidence (dronedarone 3 of 8; amiodarone 0 of 7), which was also seen during an epinephrine challenge. CONCLUSIONS: In the CAVB dog model, both amiodarone and dronedarone prolong QT time (class III effect). The absence of TdP with amiodarone seems to be related to homogeneous APD lengthening in the majority of dogs and the lack of EADs and/or ventricular ectopic beats in all.

Living anatomy of the atrioventricular junctions. A guide to electrophysiologic mapping. A Consensus Statement from the Cardiac Nomenclature Study Group, Working Group of Arrhythmias, European Society of Cardiology, and the Task Force on Cardiac Nomenclature from NASPE.

Current nomenclature for the atrioventricular (AV) junctions derives from a surgically distorted view, placing the valvar rings and the triangle of Koch in a single plane with antero-posterior and right-left lateral coordinates. Within this convention, the aorta is considered to occupy an anterior position, although the mouth of the coronary sinus is shown as being posterior. Although this nomenclature has served its purpose for the description and treatment of arrhythmias dependent on accessory pathways and atrioventricular nodal reentry, it is less than satisfactory for the description of atrial and ventricular mapping. To correct these deficiencies, a consensus document has been prepared by experts from the Working Group of Arrhythmias of the European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology. It proposes a new anatomically sound nomenclature that will be applicable to all chambers of the heart. In this report, we discuss its value for description of the AV junctions, establishing the principles of this new nomenclature.