Butylphthalide Suppresses Neuronal Cells Apoptosis and Inhibits JNK-Caspase3 Signaling Pathway After Brain Ischemia /Reperfusion in Rats.

Although Butylphthalide (BP) has protective effects that reduce ischemia-induced brain damage and neuronal cell death, little is known about the precise mechanisms occurring during cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R). Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the neuroprotective mechanisms of BP against ischemic brain injury induced by cerebral I/R through inhibition of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)-Caspase3 signaling pathway. BP in distilled non-genetically modified Soybean oil was administered intragastrically three times a day at a dosage of 15 mg/(kg day) beginning at 20 min after I/R in Sprague-Dawley rats. Immunohistochemical staining and Western blotting were performed to examine the expression of related proteins, and TUNEL-staining was used to detect the percentage of neuronal apoptosis in the hippocampal CA1 region. The results showed that BP could significantly protect neurons against cerebral I/R-induced damage. Furthermore, the expression of p-JNK, p-Bcl2, p-c-Jun, FasL, and cleaved-caspase3 was also decreased in the rats treated with BP. In summary, our results imply that BP could remarkably improve the survival of CA1 pyramidal neurons in I/R-induced brain injury and inhibit the JNK-Caspase3 signaling pathway.

Anti-inflammatory Effect of Astaxanthin on the Sickness Behavior Induced by Diabetes Mellitus.

Chronic inflammation appears to play a critical role in sickness behavior caused by diabetes mellitus. Astaxanthin has been used in treating diabetes mellitus and diabetic complications because of its neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory actions. However, whether astaxanthin can improve sickness behavior induced by diabetes and its potential mechanisms are still unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of astaxanthin on diabetes-elicited abnormal behavior in mice and its corresponding mechanisms. An experimental diabetic model was induced by streptozotocin (150 mg/kg) and astaxanthin (25 mg/kg/day) was provided orally for 10 weeks. Body weight and water consumption were measured, and the sickness behavior was evaluated by the open field test (OFT) and closed field test (CFT). The expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) was measured, and the frontal cortical cleaved caspase-3 positive cells, interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß) expression levels were also investigated. Furthermore, cystathionine ß-synthase (CBS) in the frontal cortex was detected to determine whether the protective effect of astaxanthin on sickness behavior in diabetic mice is closely related to CBS. As expected, we observed that astaxanthin improved general symptoms and significantly increase horizontal distance and the number of crossings in the OFT and CFT. Furthermore, data showed that astaxanthin could decrease GFAP-positive cells in the brain and down-regulate the cleaved caspase-3, IL-6, and IL-1ß, and up-regulate CBS in the frontal cortex. These results suggest that astaxanthin provides neuroprotection against diabetes-induced sickness behavior through inhibiting inflammation, and the protective effects may involve CBS expression in the brain.

Mangiferin regulates interleukin-6 and cystathionine-b-synthase in lipopolysaccharide-induced brain injury.

Mangiferin has been extensively applied in different fields due to its anti-inflammatory properties. However, the precise mechanism used by mangiferin on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation has not been elucidated. Here, we discuss the potential mechanism of mangiferin during a LPS-induced brain injury. Brain injury was induced in ICR mice via intraperitoneal LPS injection (5 mg/kg). Open- and closed-field tests were used to detect the behaviors of mice, while immunoblotting was performed to measure the expression of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and cystathionine-b-synthase (CBS) in the hippocampus after mangiferin was orally administered (p.o.). Mangiferin relieved LPS-induced sickness 6 and 24 h after LPS injection; in addition, this compound suppressed LPS-induced IL-6 production after 24 h of LPS induction as well as the downregulation of LPS-induced CBS expression after 6 and 24 h of LPS treatment in the hippocampus. Therefore, mangiferin attenuated sickness behavior by regulating the expression of IL-6 and CBS.

TAT-W61 peptide attenuates neuronal injury through blocking the binding of S100b to the V-domain of Rage during ischemic stroke.

Ischemic stroke is a devastative nervous system disease associated with high mortality and morbidity rates. Unfortunately, no clinically effective neuroprotective drugs are available now. In ischemic stroke, S100 calcium-binding protein b (S100b) binds to receptor for advanced glycation end products (Rage), leading to the neurological injury. Therefore, disruption of the interaction between S100B and Rage can rescue neuronal cells. Here, we designed a peptide, termed TAT-W61, derived from the V domain of Rage which can recognize S100b. Intriguingly, TAT-W61 can reduce the inflammatory caused by ischemic stroke through the direct binding to S100b. The further investigation demonstrated that TAT-W61 can improve pathological infarct volume and reduce the apoptotic rate. Particularly, TAT-W61 significantly improved the learning ability, memory, and motor dysfunction of the mouse in the ischemic stroke model. Our study provides a mechanistic insight into the abnormal expression of S100b and Rage in ischemic stroke and yields an invaluable candidate for the development of drugs in tackling ischemic stroke. KEY MESSAGES: S100b expression is higher in ischemic stroke, in association with a high expression of many genes, especially of Rage. S100b is directly bound to the V-domain of Rage. Blocking the binding of S100b to Rage improves the injury after ischemic stroke.

PRDX1 Interfering Peptide Disrupts Amino Acids 70-90 of PRDX1 to Inhibit the TLR4/NF-κB Signaling Pathway and Attenuate Neuroinflammation and Ischemic Brain Injury.

Ischemic stroke ranks among the leading causes of death and disability in humans and is accompanied by motor and cognitive impairment. However, the precise mechanisms underlying injury after stroke and effective treatment strategies require further investigation. Peroxiredoxin-1 (PRDX1) triggers an extensive inflammatory cascade that plays a pivotal role in the pathology of ischemic stroke, resulting in severe brain damage from activated microglia. In the present study, we used molecular dynamics simulation and nuclear magnetic resonance to detect the interaction between PRDX1 and a specific interfering peptide. We used behavioral, morphological, and molecular experimental methods to demonstrate the effect of PRDX1-peptide on cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) in mice and to investigate the related mechanism. We found that PRDX1-peptide bound specifically to PRDX1 and improved motor and cognitive functions in I/R mice. In addition, pretreatment with PRDX1-peptide reduced the infarct area and decreased the number of apoptotic cells in the penumbra. Furthermore, PRDX1-peptide inhibited microglial activation and downregulated proinflammatory cytokines including IL-1ß, IL-6, and TNF-α through inhibition of the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway, thereby attenuating ischemic brain injury. Our findings clarify the precise mechanism underlying PRDX1-induced inflammation after ischemic stroke and suggest that the PRDX1-peptide can significantly alleviate the postischemic inflammatory response by interfering with PRDX1 amino acids 70-90 and thereby inhibiting the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway. Our study provides a theoretical basis for a new therapeutic strategy to treat ischemic stroke.

Gastrodin ameliorates the lipopolysaccharide-induced neuroinflammation in mice by downregulating miR-107-3p.

Background: Neuroinflammation plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of Central Nervous System (CNS) diseases. The phenolic glucoside gastrodin (GAS), has been known to treat CNS disorders by exerting anti-inflammatory activities. Our aim was to investigate the potential neuroprotective mechanisms of GAS on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced mice. Methods: Male C57BL/6J mice were treated by LPS, before which GAS was adminisrated. The behavior tests such as forced swim test, tail suspension test, and elevated plus maze were performed to evaluate depressive-anxiety-like behaviors. A high-throughput sequencing (HTS) analysis was performed to screen out distinctive miRNAs which were validated using quantitative real-time PCR. Then, miRNA agomir or NC was injected stereotaxically into hippocampus of mice to explore the role of miRNA on GAS in response to LPS. Furthermore, Immunofluorescence and the hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining were employed to observe the cellular morphology. The protein levels of pro-inflammatory factors were evaluated by western blot. Finally, the target mRNA of miRNA was predicted using bioinformatics analysis. GO and KEGG enrichment analyses were conducted to clarify the potential function of target protein, which were visualized by bubble charts. Results: The behavioral data showed that mice in the LPS group had obvious depressive-anxiety-like behaviors, and 100 mg/kg GAS could improve these behavioral changes and alleviate the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the hippocampus when mice were exposed to LPS for 6 h. Meanwhile, LPS-induced microglia and astrocyte activation in the CA1, CA2, CA3, and DG regions of the hippocampus were also reversed by GAS. Furthermore, miR-107-3p were screened out and verified for GAS in response to LPS. Importantly, miR-107-3p overexpression negatively abrogated the neuroprotective effects of GAS. Moreover, KPNA1 might be the target molecular of miR-107-3p. KPNA1 might regulate 12 neuroinflammation-related genes, which were mainly involved in cytokine-mediated signaling pathway. Conclusion: These results suggested that GAS might alleviate the LPS-induced neuroinflammation and depressive-anxiety-like behaviors in mice by downregulating miR-107-3p and upregulating the downstream target KPNA1. The indicates miR-107-3p may provide a new strategy for the treatment of CNS diseases.

H2S attenuates injury after ischemic stroke by diminishing the assembly of CaMKII with ASK1-MKK3-p38 signaling module.

Cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury is a leading cause of learning and memory dysfunction. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) has been shown to confer neuroprotection in various neurodegenerative diseases, including cerebral I/R-induced hippocampal CA1 injury. However, the underlying mechanisms have not been completely understood. In the present study, rats were pretreated with SAM/NaHS (SAM, an H2S agonist, and NaHS, an H2S donor) only or SAM/NaHS combined with CaM (an activator of CaMKII) prior to cerebral ischemia. The Morris water maze test demonstrated that SAM/NaHS could alleviate learning and memory impairment induced by cerebral I/R injury. Cresyl violet staining was used to show the survival of hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons. SAM/NaHS significantly increased the number of surviving cells, whereas CaM weakened the protection induced by SAM/NaHS. The immunohistochemistry results indicated that the number of Iba1-positive microglia significantly increased after cerebral I/R. Compared with the I/R group, the number of Iba1-positive microglia in the SAM/NaHS groups significantly decreased. Co-Immunoprecipitation and immunoblotting were conducted to demonstrate that SAM/NaHS suppressed the assembly of CaMKII with the ASK1-MKK3-p38 signal module after cerebral I/R, which decreased the phosphorylation of p38. In contrast, CaM significantly inhibited the effects of SAM/NaHS. Taken together, the results suggested that SAM/NaHS could suppress cerebral I/R injury by downregulating p38 phosphorylation via decreasing the assembly of CaMKII with the ASK1-MKK3-p38 signal module.

Rosmarinic acid ameliorates hypoxia/ischemia induced cognitive deficits and promotes remyelination.

Rosmarinic acid, a common ester extracted from Rosemary, Perilla frutescens, and Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge, has been shown to have protective effects against various diseases. This is an investigation into whether rosmarinic acid can also affect the changes of white matter fibers and cognitive deficits caused by hypoxic injury. The right common carotid artery of 3-day-old rats was ligated for 2 hours. The rats were then prewarmed in a plastic container with holes in the lid, which was placed in 37°C water bath for 30 minutes. Afterwards, the rats were exposed to an atmosphere with 8% O2 and 92% N2 for 30 minutes to establish the perinatal hypoxia/ischemia injury models. The rat models were intraperitoneally injected with rosmarinic acid 20 mg/kg for 5 consecutive days. At 22 days after birth, rosmarinic acid was found to improve motor, anxiety, learning and spatial memory impairments induced by hypoxia/ischemia injury. Furthermore, rosmarinic acid promoted the proliferation of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells in the subventricular zone. After hypoxia/ischemia injury, rosmarinic acid reversed to some extent the downregulation of myelin basic protein and the loss of myelin sheath in the corpus callosum of white matter structure. Rosmarinic acid partially slowed down the expression of oligodendrocyte marker Olig2 and myelin basic protein and the increase of oligodendrocyte apoptosis marker inhibitors of DNA binding 2. These data indicate that rosmarinic acid ameliorated the cognitive dysfunction after perinatal hypoxia/ischemia injury by improving remyelination in corpus callosum. This study was approved by the Animal Experimental Ethics Committee of Xuzhou Medical University, China (approval No. 20161636721) on September 16, 2017.

GluR6-containing KA receptor mediates the activation of p38 MAP kinase in rat hippocampal CA1 region during brain ischemia injury.

Our previous study showed that kainate (KA) receptor subunit GluR6 played an important role in ischemia-induced MLK3 and JNK activation and neuronal degeneration through the GluR6-PSD95-MLK3 signaling module. However, whether the KA receptors subunit GluR6 is involved in the activation of p38 MAP kinase during the transient brain ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) in the rat hippocampal CA1 subfield is still unknown. In this present study, we first evaluated the time-course of phospho-p38 MAP kinase at various time-points after 15 min of ischemia and then observed the effects of antagonist of KA receptor subunit GluR6, GluR6 antisence oligodeoxynucleotides on the phosphorylation of p38 MAP kinase induced by I/R. Results showed that inhibiting KA receptor GluR6 or suppressing the expression of KA receptor GluR6 could down-regulate the elevation of phospho-p38 MAP kinase induced by I/R. These drugs also reduced the phosphorylation of MLK3, MKK3/MKK6, MKK4, and MAPKAPK2. Additionally, our results indicated administration of three drugs, including p38 MAP kinase inhibitor before brain ischemia significantly decreased the number of TUNEL-positive cells detected at 3 days of reperfusion and increased the number of the surviving CA1 pyramidal cells at 5 days of reperfusion after 15 min of ischemia. Taken together, we suggest that GluR6-contained KA receptors can mediate p38 MAP kinase activation through a kinase cascade, including MLK3, MKK3/MKK6, and MKK4 and then induce increased phosphorylation of MAPKAPK-2 during ischemia injury and ultimately result in neuronal cell death in the rat hippocampal CA1 region.

Neuroprotection against transient focal cerebral ischemia and oxygen-glucose deprivation by interference with GluR6-PSD95 protein interaction.

Previous studies have shown that KA receptor subunit GluR6 mediated c-Jun N-terminal protein kinase (JNK) signaling is involved in global ischemia injury. Our present study indicates that focal ischemic brain insult on rat middle cerebral artery occlusion (MACo) model enhances the assembly of the GluR6-PSD95-MLK3 module and facilitates the phosphorylation of JNK. Most importantly, a peptide containing the TAT protein transduction sequence, Tat-GluR6-9c, can perturb the assembly of the GluR6-PSD95-MLK3 signaling module and suppress the activation of MLK3, MKK7/4 and JNK. As result, the inhibition of JNK activation caused by Tat-GluR6-9c diminishes the phosphorylation of the transcription factor c-Jun, down-regulates FasL expression and attenuates bax translocation, release of cytochrome c and the activation of caspase-3. Furthermore, MCAo induced infract volume is reduced by intracerebroventricular injection of Tat-Glur6-9c. Oxygen-glucose-deprivation (OGD) cultured cortical neuronal cell also shows an improved cell viability by application of Tat-GluR6-9c. Taken together, our findings strongly suggest that GluR6-PSD95-MLK3 signaling module mediated activation of nuclear and non-nuclear pathways of JNK activation are involved in focal ischemia injury and OGD. Tat-GluR6-9c, the peptide we constructed, gives a new insight into the therapy for ischemic stroke.

The potential role of HO-1 in regulating the MLK3-MKK7-JNK3 module scaffolded by JIP1 during cerebral ischemia/reperfusion in rats.

Heme oxygenase (HO-1), which may be induced by Cobaltic protoporphyrin IX chloride (CoPPIX) or Rosiglitazone (Ros), is a neuroprotective agent that effectively reduces ischemic stroke. Previous studies have shown that the neuroprotective mechanisms of HO-1 are related to JNK signaling. The expression of HO-1 protects cells from death through the JNK signaling pathway. This study aimed to ascertain whether the neuroprotective effect of HO-1 depends on the assembly of the MLK3-MKK7-JNK3 signaling module scaffolded by JIP1 and further influences the JNK signal transmission through HO-1. Prior to the ischemia-reperfusion experiment, CoPPIX was injected through the lateral ventricle for 5 consecutive days or Ros was administered via intraperitoneal administration in the week prior to transient ischemia. Our results demonstrated that HO-1 could inhibit the assembly of the MLK3-MKK7-JNK3 signaling module scaffolded by JIP1 and could ultimately diminish the phosphorylation of JNK3. Furthermore, the inhibition of JNK3 phosphorylation downregulated the level of p-c-Jun and elevated neuronal cell death in the CA1 of the hippocampus. Taken together, these findings suggested that HO-1 could ameliorate brain injury by regulating the MLK3-MKK7-JNK3 signaling module, which was scaffolded by JIP1 and JNK signaling during cerebral ischemia/reperfusion.

Neuroprotection of Sevoflurane Against Ischemia/Reperfusion-Induced Brain Injury Through Inhibiting JNK3/Caspase-3 by Enhancing Akt Signaling Pathway.

In this study, we investigated the neuroprotective effect of sevoflurane against ischemic brain injury and its underlying molecular mechanisms. Transient global brain ischemia was induced by 4-vessel occlusion in adult male Sprague-Dawley rats. The rats were pretreated with sevoflurane alone or sevoflurane combined with LY294002/wortmannin (selective inhibitor of PI3K) before ischemia. Cresyl violet staining was used to examine the survival of hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons. Immunoblotting and immunoprecipitation were performed to measure the phosphorylation of Akt1, PRAS40, ASK1, and JNK3 and the expression of cleaved-caspase-3. The results demonstrated that a moderate dose of sevoflurane inhalation of 2% for 2 h had significant neuroprotective effects against ischemia/reperfusion induced hippocampal neuron death. Sevoflurane significantly increased Akt and PRAS40 phosphorylation and decreased the phosphorylation of ASK1 at 6 h after reperfusion and the phosphorylation of JNK3 at 3 days after reperfusion following 15 min of transient global brain ischemia. Conversely, LY294002 and wortmannin significantly inhibited the effects of sevoflurane. Taken together, the results suggest that sevoflurane could suppress ischemic brain injury by downregulating the activation of the ASK1/JNK3 cascade via increasing the phosphorylation of Akt1 during ischemia/reperfusion.

Heme oxygenase-1 regulates the JNK signaling pathway through the MLK3-MKK7-JNK3 signaling module in brain ischemia injury.

Although previous researches indicated that heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) plays a conspicuous role in neuronal injury induced by reperfusion following the brain ischemia, reasonable mechanisms for the role of HO-1 are not clear. In this work, we investigated whether HO-1 was involved in the regulation of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling pathway and neuronal cell injury induced by the brain ischemia followed by reperfusion. Cobaltic protoporphyrin (CoPP), an activator of HO-1, was administrated to induce the overexpression of HO-1 by intracerebroventricular infusion 20 min before ischemia. The results showed that the combination of HO-1-mixed lineage kinase 3 (MLK3), MLK3-mitogen-activated kinase kinase 7 (MKK7) and MKK7-JNK3 increased to a peak at 6h of reperfusion following 15 min of ischemia induced by four-vessel occlusion in rats, and these effects were downregulated by CoPP. In addition, CoPP could inhibit the activation of JNK3, c-Jun and caspase-3. Furthermore, pretreatment with CoPP significantly increased the survival of neurons after 5 days of reperfusion. In contrast, all of the above effects of CoPP were reversed by zinc protoporphyrin (ZnPP), a selective inhibitor of HO-1. Our results suggested that HO-1 could protect neurons against brain ischemic injury by downregulating the JNK signaling pathway through the MLK3-MKK7-JNK3 signaling module.