Development of symptoms of oppositional defiant disorder from preschool to adolescence: the role of bullying victimization and emotion regulation.

BACKGROUND: Childhood oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is associated with adverse outcomes which can continue to impair life well into adulthood. Identifying modifiable etiological factors of ODD is therefore essential. Although bullying victimization and poor emotion regulation are assumed to be risk factors for the development of ODD symptoms, little research has been conducted to test this possibility. METHODS: A sample (n = 1,042) from two birth cohorts of children in the city of Trondheim, Norway, was assessed biennially from age 4 to 14 years. Parents and children (from age 8) were assessed with clinical interviews to determine symptoms of ODD, children reported on their victimization from bullying, and teachers reported on children's emotion regulation. RESULTS: Oppositional defiant disorder symptoms increased from age 4 to 6, from age 8 to 10, and then started to wane as children entered adolescence. A Random Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Model revealed that increased emotion regulation predicted a reduced number of ODD symptoms across development (ß = -.15 to -.13, p < .001). This prediction was equally strong for the angry/irritable and argumentative/defiant dimensions of ODD. No longitudinal links were observed between bullying victimization and ODD symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Improving emotion regulation skills may protect against ODD symptoms throughout childhood and adolescence.

Emotions or cognitions first? Longitudinal relations between executive functions and emotion regulation in childhood.

Executive functions and emotion regulation develop from early childhood to adolescence and are predictive of important psychosocial outcomes. However, despite the correlation between the two regulatory capacities, whether they are prospectively related in school-aged children remains unknown, and the direction of effects is uncertain. In this study, a sample drawn from two birth cohorts in Norway was biennially examined between the ages of 6 and 14 (n = 852, 50.1% girls, 93% Norwegian). Parents completed the Emotion Regulation Checklist, and teachers completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function. A random intercept cross-lagged panel model revealed that improved emotion regulation predicted increased executive functioning to the same extent throughout development, whereas enhanced executive functioning was unrelated to future changes in emotion regulation.

Prevalence and stability of blood-injection-injury phobia in childhood-A prospective community study in Norway.

AIM: An individual with a blood-injection-injury (BII) phobia often avoids exposure to triggers, such as blood tests and clinic appointments, leading to potentially serious health complications. This population-based study examined the prevalence, stability and course of BII phobia in children and adolescents. METHODS: The data came from the Trondheim Early Secure Study, conducted from 2007 to 2018. All children born in Trondheim, Norway, in 2003 and 2004 were invited to attend. Clinical interviews were conducted by trained personnel to assess BII phobia in 1042 children (51% female) every 2 years from 4 to 14 years of age. Latent growth curves and logistic regression analyses were used in the data analysis. RESULTS: Just under 20% of the cohort experienced a BII phobia at least once, with no significant sex differences. The prevalence of BII phobias increased from 3% at 4 years of age and peaked at about 8% at 10 years of age, before levelling off. The two-year stability increased as 12-14 years of age approached. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of BII was affected by age, but not sex. Early BII phobias often recede with time, but children may need treatment if they persist from 8 years of age.

Validation of the adult eating behavior questionnaire in a Norwegian sample of adolescents.

Eating behaviors are related to health and well-being. To examine stability and change in eating behaviors throughout life, developmentally appropriate measures capturing the same eating behavior dimensions are needed. The newly developed Adult Eating Behavior Questionnaire (AEBQ) builds on the well-established parent-reported Children's Eating Behavior Questionnaire (CEBQ), and together with the corresponding Baby Eating Behavior Questionnaire (BEBQ), these questionnaires cover all ages. However, validation studies on adolescents are relatively sparse and have yielded somewhat conflicting results. The present study adds to existing research by testing the psychometric properties of the AEBQ in a sample of 14-year-olds and examining its construct validity by means of the parent-reported CEBQ. The current study uses age 14 data (analysis sample: n = 636) from the ongoing Trondheim Early Secure Study, a longitudinal study of a representative birth cohort of Norwegian children (baseline: n = 1007). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to test the factorial validity of AEBQ. Construct validity was examined by bivariate correlations between AEBQ subscales and CEBQ subscales. CFAs revealed that a 7-factor solution of the AEBQ, with the Hunger scale removed, was a better-fitting model than the original 8-factor structure. The 7-factor model was respecified based on theory and model fit indices, resulting in overall adequate model fit (χ2 = 896.86; CFI = 0.924; TLI = 0.912; RMSEA = 0.05 (90% CI: 0.043, 0.051); SRMR = 0.06). Furthermore, small-to-moderate correlations were found between corresponding AEBQ and CEBQ scales. This study supports a 7-factor solution of the AEBQ without the Hunger scale and provide evidence of its construct validity in adolescents. Several of the CEBQ subscales were significantly associated with weight status, whereas this was the case for only one of the AEBQ scales.

Social skills and symptoms of anxiety disorders from preschool to adolescence: a prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Prior research, mostly cross-sectional or prospective studies with short follow-up periods, has indicated that childhood anxiety is associated with difficulties with social interaction. However, the etiological role of social skills in the development of anxiety in childhood remains unknown. Moreover, it is not known whether childhood anxiety impedes the development of age-appropriate social skills. METHODS: The relation between anxiety and social skills was, therefore, examined in two birth cohorts of children who were assessed biennially from the ages of 4 to 14 years (n = 1,043). Semistructured psychiatric diagnostic interviews of children (from age 8) and parents were used to measure symptoms of separation, generalized, and social anxiety disorders as well as specific phobias. Social skills were measured through the parent-reported Social Skills Rating System. A random intercept cross-lagged panel model was used to analyze the data, adjusting for observed time-variant covariates (emotion regulation, secure attachment, bullying victimization, and global self-esteem) and all unobserved time-invariant confounding effects. RESULTS: Reduced social skills predicted increased symptoms of anxiety at ages 8, 10, and 12 (ß = -.26, ß = -.17, and ß = -.15, respectively), whereas an increased number of anxiety symptoms did not forecast changes in social skills. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that reduced social skills may be involved in the development of anxiety symptoms in middle childhood and should, therefore, be considered in efforts to prevent and treat childhood anxiety.

Reciprocal relations between interparental aggression and symptoms of oppositional defiant and conduct disorders: a seven-wave cohort study of within-family effects from preschool to adolescence.

BACKGROUND: Interparental aggression is believed to increase the risk of behavioral disorders in offspring, and offspring behavioral problems may forecast interparental aggression. However, these assumptions have yet to be put to a strong test. This study, therefore, examined whether increased interparental aggression predicted increased symptoms of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and conduct disorder (CD) from preschool to adolescence and vice versa. METHODS: A sample (n = 1,077; 49.6% girls) from two birth cohorts of children in Trondheim, Norway, was assessed biennially from age 4 to 16. Children's symptoms of ODD and CD were assessed using semi-structured clinical interviews of parents (from age 4) and children (from age 8). One of the parents reported on their own and their partner's verbal and physical aggression. A random intercept cross-lagged model was estimated to test the within-family relations between interparental aggression, CD, and ODD symptoms. RESULTS: Across development, increased interparental aggression predicted increased CD symptoms 2 years later, whereas an increased number of ODD symptoms forecasted increased interparental aggression. CONCLUSIONS: The argumentative/defiant, aggressive, and vindictive behaviors seen in ODD are often directed toward parents and may take a toll on their relationship and possibly foster interparental aggression, whereas aggression between parents may promote symptoms of CD in their offspring, which commonly extend beyond the home. Incorporating effective and non-aggressive means to solve interparental conflict into parental management programs may reduce the development of symptoms of CDs in children.

Parental personality disorder symptoms and children's social skills: a prospective community study.

Acquiring age-appropriate social skills, arguably a major prerequisite for favorable psychosocial development in children, is targeted in a range of interventions. Hence, identifying factors that limit this acquisition may inform preventative and treatment efforts. Personality disorders are characterized by pervasive and enduring dysfunctional interpersonal functioning, including parenting, and could thus entail risk for offspring in not developing adaptive interpersonal skills. However, no study has tested this possibility. A representative sample drawn from two birth cohorts of Norwegian 4-year-olds (n = 956) and their parents was followed up at ages 6, 8, and 10 years. Parents' personality disorder symptoms were measured dimensionally with the DSM-IV and ICD-10 Personality Questionnaire, and children's social skills were evaluated by the Social Skills Rating System. A difference-in-difference approach was applied to adjust for all unmeasured time-invariant confounders, and parental symptoms of depression and anxiety were entered as covariates. Increased Cluster B symptoms in parents of children aged 4 to 6 years predicted decreased social skill development in offspring (B = -0.97, 95% CI -1.58, -0.37, p = 0.002). On a more granular level, increased symptoms of borderline (B = -0.39, CI -0.65, -0.12, p = 0.004), histrionic (B = -0.55, CI -0.99, -0.11, p = 0.018), and avoidant (B = -0.46, CI-0.79, -0.13, p = 0.006) personality disorders in parents predicted decreased social skill development in offspring. Subclinical levels of borderline, histrionic and avoidant personality disorders in parents may impair the development of social skills in offspring. Successfully treating these personality problems or considering them when providing services to children may facilitate children's acquisition of social skills.

Relations between physical activity, sedentary time, and body fat from childhood to adolescence: Do they differ by sex?

BACKGROUND: Efforts to reveal the direction of influence between physical activity (PA), sedentary time (ST) and body fat in youth have produced inconsistent results, possibly due to a lack of adjustment for confounders and other factors. Sex-specific associations have rarely been studied. METHODS: A sample from two Norwegian birth cohorts (n = 809) were followed biennially over five waves from the age of 6-14 years. Physical activity and ST were recorded by accelerometers, and body fat was assessed by bioelectrical impedance measurements. RESULTS: By applying a dynamic panel model (DPM) that adjusts for all time-invariant confounding factors, it was found that among boys, increased fat mass index (FMI) at ages 8, 10 and 12 years predicted decreased PA two years later (8-10 years: B = -0.67, (95% CI: -1.1, -0.24); 10-12 years: B = -0.33, (95% CI: -0.61, -0.05); 12-14 years: B = -0.29, (95% CI: -0.52, -0.06)). Regarding the opposite direction of influence, more PA at age 12 forecasted reduced FMI at age 14 (B = -0.16, (95% CI: -0.24, -0.07)), whereas increased FMI predicted increased ST across all time points in boys only (6-8 years: B = 0.23, (95% CI:0.02.43); 8-10 years: B = 0.23, (95% CI:.08.39); 10-12 years: B = 0.13, (95% CI:.03.23); 12-14 years: B = 0.17, (95% CI:.07, 26)). The revealed relationships were significantly stronger in boys compared to the (absent) relations in girls. Sensitivity analyses examining moderate to vigorous PA (MVPA) rather than total PA were in accordance with the main findings. CONCLUSIONS: In boys, increased FMI predicted reduced PA and increased ST two years later from childhood to adolescence. The opposite direction of influence was evident from only ages 12-14. There were no prospective relationships between FMI and PA or ST among girls.

Longitudinal relations between impaired executive function and symptoms of psychiatric disorders in childhood.

BACKGROUND: Malfunctioning of executive functions correlates with psychopathology in children. However, the directionality, the extent to which the relation varies for various disorders, and whether prospective relations afford causal interpretations are not known. METHODS: A community sample of Norwegian children (n = 874) was studied biennially from the age of 6 to 14 years. Executive functions were assessed using the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function Teacher-report and symptoms of psychopathology were assessed using the Preschool Age Psychiatric Assessment (age 6; parents) and Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (ages 8-14; children and parents). Prospective reciprocal relations were examined using a random intercept cross-lagged panel model that adjusts for all unobserved time-invariant confounders. RESULTS: Even when time-invariant confounders were accounted for, reduced executive functions predicted increased symptoms of depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), and conduct disorder (CD) 2 years later, even when previous changes in these symptoms were adjusted for. The level of prediction (B = .83, 95% CI [.37, 1.3]) was not different for different disorders or ages. Conversely, reduced executive functions were predicted by increased symptoms of all disorders (B = .01, 95% CI [.01, .02]). CONCLUSIONS: Reduced executive functioning may be involved in the etiology of depression, anxiety, ADHD, and ODD/CD to an equal extent. Moreover, increased depression, anxiety, ADHD, and ODD/CD may negatively impact executive functioning.

Prevalence and course of anxiety disorders and symptoms from preschool to adolescence: a 6-wave community study.

BACKGROUND: The rate of various anxiety disorders in early childhood and whether they continue into middle childhood or adolescence is not known. We therefore report on the prevalence and stability of DSM-5-defined anxiety disorders and their symptoms, capturing the period from preschool to adolescence. METHODS: By means of interviewer-based clinical interviews, anxiety was measured in a sample of Norwegian children at six measurement points from age 4 to 14 (n = 1,041). To adjust for time-invariant factors, we applied random intercept cross-lagged panel models (RI-CLPMs) capturing within-person changes. RESULTS: Nearly 10% (95% CI = 7.29, 12.63) had an anxiety disorder at some timepoint. Specific phobia was the most prevalent disorder in early and middle childhood, whereas generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) increased in prevalence and became the most common anxiety disorder at age 14 (4.51%, 95% CI = 2.78, 6.23). When time-invariant confounding was adjusted for, homotypic continuity in anxiety symptoms typically first emerged in late middle childhood or adolescence. Even so, such within-person analyses revealed a heterotypic path from increased number of early childhood symptoms of specific phobia to increased number of GAD symptoms in middle childhood (B = .41, 95% CI = .06, .75). Increased separation anxiety in middle childhood predicted increased symptoms of GAD in adolescence (B = .38, 95% CI = .14, .62), and vice versa (B = .05, 95% CI = .00, .09). Only minor gender differences were revealed. CONCLUSIONS: Anxiety disorders are prevalent in childhood. In early childhood, anxiety symptoms generally do not predict later anxiety symptoms. In middle childhood, however, such symptoms are less likely to vanish, indicating this developmental period to be particularly important for preventive and treatment efforts.

Reactive attachment disorder and disinhibited social engagement disorder in adolescence: co-occurring psychopathology and psychosocial problems.

Insufficient care is associated with most psychiatric disorders and psychosocial problems, and is part of the etiology of reactive attachment disorder (RAD) and disinhibited social engagement disorder (DSED). To minimize the risk of misdiagnosis, and aid treatment and care, clinicians need to know to which degree RAD and DSED co-occur with other psychopathology and psychosocial problems, a topic little researched in adolescence. In a national study of all adolescents (N = 381; 67% consent; 12-20 years old; 58% girls) in Norwegian residential youth care, the Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment interview yielded information about psychiatric diagnoses and psychosocial problems categorized as present/absent, and the Child Behavior Check List questionnaire was applied for dimensional measures of psychopathology. Most adolescents with a RAD or DSED diagnosis had several cooccurring psychiatric disorders and psychosocial problems. Prevalence rates of both emotional and behavioral disorders were high in adolescent RAD and DSED, as were rates of suicidality, self-harm, victimization from bullying, contact with police, risky sexual behavior and alcohol or drug misuse. Although categorical measures of co-occurring disorders and psychosocial problems revealed few and weak associations with RAD and DSED, dimensional measures uncovered associations between both emotional and behavioral problems and RAD/DSED symptom loads, as well as DSED diagnosis. Given the high degree of comorbidity, adolescents with RAD or DSED-or symptoms thereof-should be assessed for co-occurring psychopathology and related psychosocial problems. Treatment plans should be adjusted accordingly.

Depression from preschool to adolescence - five faces of stability.

BACKGROUND: The term 'stability' has different meanings, and its implications for the etiology, prevention, and treatment of depression vary accordingly. Here, we identify five types of stability in childhood depression, many undetermined due to a lack of research or inconsistent findings. METHODS: Children and parents (n = 1,042) drawn from two birth cohorts in Trondheim, Norway, were followed biennially from ages 4-14 years. Symptoms of major depressive disorder (MDD) and dysthymia were assessed with the Preschool Age Psychiatric Assessment (only parents) and the Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (age 8 onwards). RESULTS: (a) Stability of form: Most symptoms increased in frequency. The symptoms' importance (according to factor loadings) was stable across childhood but increased from ages 12-14, indicating that MDD became more coherent. (b) Stability at the group level: The number of symptoms of dysthymia increased slightly until age 12, and the number of symptoms of MDD and dysthymia increased sharply between ages 12-14. (c) Stability relative to the group (i.e., 'rank-order') was modest to moderate and increased from ages 12-14. (d) Stability relative to oneself (i.e., intraclass correlations) was stronger than stability relative to the group and increased from age 12-14. (e) Stability of within-person changes: At all ages, decreases or increases in the number of symptoms forecasted similar changes two years later, but more strongly so between ages 12-14. CONCLUSIONS: Across childhood, while most symptoms of MDD and dysthymia become more frequent, they are equally important. The transition to adolescence is a particularly vulnerable period: The depression construct becomes more coherent, stability increases, the level of depression increases, and such an increase predicts further escalation. Even so, intervention at any time during childhood may have lasting effects on reducing child and adolescent depression.

Predictors of community versus specialty mental health service use: a prospective cohort study.

Child and adolescent mental health specialized services (CAMHS) are supposed to serve those who are most seriously disturbed and impaired. However, little is known about how children receiving treatment at different levels of care differ. The present study seeks to determine whether having a psychiatric disorder and resulting impairment measured in early childhood increases the odds of receiving help in CAMHS versus from community services during middle childhood or whether other factors (e.g., parenting stress, family functioning) also influence service utilization. A screen-stratified sample (n = 995 of the 2003-2004 birth cohorts) in Trondheim, Norway was assessed biennially from age 4-12 with semi-structured diagnostic interviews and recording of service use, family functioning, parental perceived need, and parenting stress. Behavioral disorders more strongly predicted CAMHS than community service use, whereas impairment predicted community service use. However, impairment increased the odds of receiving services in CAMHS if the parents perceived a need for help. Parental perceived need for help also increased the odds of CAMHS use independent of diagnosis and impairment. Having an emotional disorder, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), parenting stress, previous service use, or family functioning did not predict service use at either level. Whereas children with behavioral disorders received help from CAMHS, children with emotional disorders did not receive services at either level. ADHD did not predict service use, indicating that young children with ADHD without comorbid disorders are not sufficiently detected. Efforts to detect, refer and treat emotional disorders and ADHD at the appropriate level should be increased.

Prevalence and stability of insufficient sleep measured by actigraphy: a prospective community study.

BACKGROUND: It is well established that reduced sleep has detrimental effects on school-aged children's functioning, but the prevalence and stability of objectively measured insufficient sleep throughout childhood is unknown. METHODS: A sample of 799 children was followed biennially with 24-h 7-day accelerometer (hip-placed) measurements from ages 6 to 12 years. Insufficient sleep was conceptualized as sleeping <7 h on average (AIS) and as the number of nights with <7 h of sleep (NNIS). RESULTS: The prevalence of AIS ranged from 1.1% to 13.6%. Of those without AIS, 15.1-64.5% had >1 NNIS. At ages 6-10 years, NNIS was higher on weekend nights, but at age 12 years NNIS was lower on weekends (18.1%) compared to weekdays (23.4%). The stability of AIS was low from ages 6 to 8 years and from 8 to 10 years, but increased from age 10 to 12 years, whereas NNIS evidenced higher stability, increasing sharply through late middle childhood. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of AIS was low during the preschool and early school years but increased toward preadolescence. The 2-year stability of insufficient sleep was very low when conceptualized as AIS and moderate when defined as NNIS, hence NNIS might be more sensitive than AIS. Insufficient sleep appears transient in middle childhood and thus might not warrant intervention unless it fosters impairment and endures.

The co-occurrence between symptoms of internet gaming disorder and psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence: prospective relations or common causes?

BACKGROUND: Internet gaming disorder (IGD) is highlighted as a condition for further study in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Fifth Edition (DSM-5). Some studies indicate that IGD appears comorbid with other psychiatric disorders. We examine concurrent and prospective links between symptoms of IGD and symptoms of common psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence to determine whether observed comorbidity is a result of (a) reciprocal relations or (b) common underlying causes. METHODS: A community sample (n = 702) of Norwegian children completed the Internet Gaming Disorder Interview (IGDI) to assess DSM-5 defined IGD symptoms at ages 10, 12 and 14 years. The Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (CAPA) assessed symptoms of depression, anxiety, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and conduct disorder (CD) at the same time points. RESULTS: A Random Intercept Cross-lagged Panel Model (RI-CLPM), which captures pure within-person changes and adjusts for all unmeasured time-invariant factors (e.g., genetics, parent education) revealed no associations between IGD symptoms and psychopathology, except that increased IGD symptoms at ages 10 and 12 predicted decreased symptoms of anxiety two years later. CONCLUSIONS: No support emerged for concurrent or prospective relations between IGD and psychiatric symptoms, except in one case: increased IGD symptoms forecasted reduction in anxiety symptoms. Observed co-occurrence between IGD symptoms and mental health problems can mainly be attributed to common underlying factors.

Time Spent Gaming and Social Competence in Children: Reciprocal Effects Across Childhood.

Electronic games are popular and many children spend much time on this activity. Here we investigate whether the quantity of time children spend on gaming is related to their social development, making this the first study to examine this relationship in children. We examine prospective relations between time spent gaming and social competence in a community sample of Norwegian 6 year olds (n = 873) followed up at ages 8, 10, and 12, controlling for socioeconomic status, body mass index, and time spent gaming together with friends. Results revealed that greater social competence at both 8 and 10 years predicted less gaming 2 years later and that more age-10 gaming predicted less social competence at age 12 but only among girls.

Temperament as a predictor of eating behavior in middle childhood - A fixed effects approach.

BACKGROUND: Individual differences in temperament are believed to influence the development of children's eating behavior. This hypothesis has predominantly been tested in cross-sectional designs and important confounders such as genetics and stable parenting factors have not been accounted for. The present study aims to establish more clearly than previous studies if temperament is involved in the etiology of eating behavior in middle childhood. METHODS: A community sample of Norwegian children (n = 997) were followed biennially from age 4 to age 10. Temperamental negative affectivity, effortful control, and surgency were measured by The Child Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ). The Children's Eating Behavior Questionnaire (CEBQ) captured four 'food approach' behaviors ('food responsiveness', 'enjoyment of food', 'emotional overeating', 'desire to drink') and four 'food avoidant' behaviors ('emotional undereating', 'satiety responsiveness', 'food fussiness', 'slowness in eating'). The prospective relationships between temperament and eating behavior were tested with fixed, random and hybrid effect models, which adjust for all unmeasured time-invariant factors (e.g. genetics, common methods over time) RESULTS: Over and above unmeasured time-invariant confounders, higher negative affectivity predicted more 'food approach' and 'food avoidant' behavior, as did low effortful control, although less consistently so. Greater surgency was prospectively related to more 'food approach' and less 'food avoidant' behavior, but only at some ages and with the exception of emotional over- and under-eating. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that temperament is involved in the etiology of children's eating behavior. Negative affectivity, in particular, may affect both 'food approach' and 'food avoidant' behavior. Because children prone to react with negative affect are at increased risk of obesogenic and disordered eating behaviors, their parents should be particularly aware of how to support healthy eating.

Time spent gaming and psychiatric symptoms in childhood: cross-sectional associations and longitudinal effects.

There is sparse knowledge on how the amount of gaming overlaps with-and is longitudinally related to-psychiatric symptoms of ADHD and emotional problems throughout early and middle childhood. In this prospective study of 791 Norwegian children, we investigated the amount of electronic gaming at ages 6, 8, and 10 while also measuring DSM symptoms of such disorders. Cross-lagged longitudinal analyses showed that more ADHD symptoms at age 8 predicted more gaming at age 10, whereas gaming did not predict more psychiatric symptoms, controlled for gender and socio-economic status. Cross-sectional overlaps between gaming and symptoms were marginal but nonetheless increased with each age level. Hence, time spent gaming did not forecast more psychiatric problems at these ages, but children with more ADHD symptoms were more likely to increase their amount of gaming throughout middle childhood. Results indicate that the sheer amount of gaming is not harmful to children's mental health, but that poorly regulated children become more attracted to games throughout childhood. Findings are discussed in light of the coexistence of problematic gaming and psychiatric problems reported among adolescents and adults, as well as the potential beneficial psychological outcomes from gaming.

Validity of reactive attachment disorder and disinhibited social engagement disorder in adolescence.

Although reactive attachment disorder (RAD) and disinhibited social engagement disorder (DSED) are acknowledged as valid disorders in young children, controversy remains regarding their validity in adolescence. An unresolved question is whether symptoms of RAD and DSED are better conceptualized as other psychiatric disorders at this age. All adolescents (N = 381; 67% consent; 12-20 years old) living in residential youth care in Norway were interviewed to determine the symptoms and diagnosis of RAD/DSED and other common psychiatric disorders using the Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (CAPA). The construct validity of RAD and DSED, including structural and discriminant validity, was investigated using confirmatory factor analysis and latent profile analysis. Two-factor models distinguishing between symptoms of RAD and DSED and differentiating these symptoms from the symptoms of other psychiatric disorders revealed better fit than one-factor models. Symptoms of RAD and DSED defined two distinct latent groups in a profile analysis. The prevalence of RAD was 9% (95% CI 6-11%), and the prevalence of DSED was 8% (95% CI 5-11%). RAD and DSED are two distinct latent factors not accounted for by other common psychiatric disorders in adolescence. RAD and DSED are not uncommon among adolescents in residential youth care and therefore warrant easy access to qualified health care and prevention in high-risk groups.

Emotional Over- and Undereating in Children: A Longitudinal Analysis of Child and Contextual Predictors.

Eating more or eating less in response to negative emotions, called emotional over- and undereating, is common in children, but research on the etiology of these behaviors is in its infancy. Drawing on a large, representative community sample of Norwegian children followed up on a biennial basis from 6 to 10 years of age (analysis sample: n = 802), child and contextual predictors (i.e., child temperament, depression symptoms, serious life events, family functioning, parental sensitivity and structuring) of change in emotional over- and undereating were examined. Results revealed that low (temperamental) soothability and less parental structuring at age 6 predicted increased emotional overeating at age 10 and that lower family functioning at age 6 predicted more emotional undereating during the same period.