Foundational assumption reasonable but uncertain.

We offer thoughts on Shadmehr and Ahmed's foundational assumption that behavioral intensity (vigor) is proportional to the perceived value of outcomes driving behavior (incentives). The assumption is reasonable considering classical motivational thought and scholarship in related literatures but called into question by an influential contemporary theory of motivation by Brehm. Brehm's theory suggests that the assumption is warranted in some, but not all, performance circumstances. Furthermore, proportionality between vigor and value might be generated through a deliberative goal-setting process rather than through intrinsic neural linkages.

Emotional and physiological desensitization to real-life and movie violence.

Youth are exposed to large amounts of violence in real life and media, which may lead to desensitization. Given evidence of curvilinear associations between exposure to violence and emotional distress, we examined linear and curvilinear associations of exposure to real-life and movie violence with PTSD symptoms, empathy, and physiological arousal, as well emotional and physiological reactivity to movie violence. College students (N = 209; mean age = 18.74) reported on their exposure to real-life and televised violence, PTSD symptoms, and empathy. Then, students were randomly assigned to view a series of violent or nonviolent high-action movie scenes, providing ratings of emotional distress after each clip. Blood pressure was measured at rest and during video viewing. Results showed that with increasing exposure to real-life violence, youth reported more PTSD symptoms and greater identification with fictional characters. Cognitive and emotional empathy increased from low to medium levels of exposure to violence, but declined at higher levels. For males, exposure to higher levels of real-life violence was associated with diminishing (vs. increasing) emotional distress when viewing violent videos. Exposure to televised violence was generally unrelated to emotional functioning. However, those with medium levels of exposure to TV/movie violence experienced lower elevations of blood pressure when viewing violent videos compared to those with low exposure, and those with higher levels of exposure evidenced rapid increase in blood pressure that quickly declined over time. The results point to diminished empathy and reduced emotional reactivity to violence as key aspects of desensitization to real-life violence, and more limited evidence of physiological desensitization to movie violence among those exposed to high levels of televised violence.

The effects of media violence on anxiety in late adolescence.

Exposure to media violence is related to anxiety in youth, but the causality of the effect has not been established. This experimental study examined the effects of media violence on anxiety, blood pressure, and heart rate in late adolescents. We also examined whether these responses varied by previous exposure to media and real-life violence. College students (N = 209; M age = 18.74; 75 % female; 50 % Caucasian, 34 % African American, 9 % Asian, 3 % Hispanic, and 3 % other racial minorities) were randomized to view either violent or nonviolent high-action movie clips. Participants reported on their anxiety before and after watching the clips, as well as their previous exposure to violence. Measures of blood pressure and heart rate were taken at baseline and during movie viewing. Participants watching violent movie clips showed a greater anxiety increase than those watching nonviolent clips. Both groups experienced increased blood pressure and reduced heart rate during movie watching compared to baseline. Prior exposure to media violence was associated with diminished heart rate response. Additionally, students previously exposed to high levels of real-life violence showed lower blood pressure increases when watching violent clips compared to nonviolent clips. Thus, relatively brief exposure to violent movie clips increased anxiety among late adolescents. Prior exposure to media and real-life violence were associated with lower physiological reactivity to high-action and violent movies, respectively, possibly indicating desensitization. Future studies should investigate long-term anxiety and physiological consequences of regular exposure to media violence in adolescence.

Effort processes in achieving performance outcomes: interrelations among and roles of core constructs.

We address points of confusion pertaining to interrelations among and roles of core constructs involved in the production of performance outcomes. We do so informed by the body of work derived from Brehm's seminal motivation intensity theory--in particular an elaboration from the theory concerned with fatigue influence on effort and associated cardiovascular responses in people confronted with performance challenges.

The role of metacognition, type of feedback, and kind of incentives for motivation to learn.

BACKGROUND: Two experiments were designed to investigate the motivational role of the metacognitive self (MCS, meaning self-awareness of biases) and kind of feedback (success vs. failure vs. control group) in willingness to learn. We predict that the condition of failure enhances motivation to learn. Predictions relate to the first experiment and social incentives, not to spatial ones. PARTICIPANTS AND PROCEDURE: Three hundred ninety-eight participants were individually (in front of a computer with E-Prime) and randomly assigned to experiment 1 of a social task or experiment 2 of a spatial task. Each experiment included three groups: success, failure, and control. The independent variables were metacognitive self (MCS) and type of feedback (success vs. failure vs. control). The dependent variable was the willingness to learn. Logistic regression was applied to investigate the hypothesis that the higher the level of MCS is, the more likely it is that the participants will try to learn. RESULTS: As predicted, MCS was positively related to searching for self-diagnostic information in the first experiment. Furthermore, according to expectations, the experiment with a social task showed the main effects of both MCS and type of feedback. The spatial experiment did not reveal significant effects. CONCLUSIONS: MCS is positively related to motivation to search for self-diagnostic information, and students are more willing to learn in the face of failure. According to expectations, the experiment with a social task substantiated the motivational role of MCS and the role of negative feedback in willingness to learn.

Robert A. Wicklund (1941-2020).

Memorializes Robert A. Wicklund (1941-2020). Wicklund was born in Seattle, WA, December 1, 1941. At the time of his death on December 12, 2020, he maintained residences in Bainbridge Island, WA, and Bielefeld, Germany. Bob earned his undergraduate degree at the University of Washington and his doctorate at Duke University in 1968. He held primary faculty positions at the University of Texas at Austin, Universität Bielefeld, and the Università di Trieste, and secondary appointments at numerous institutions, including the Ruhr-Universität Bochum, University of Bergen, Universität Mannheim, and Università di Palermo. Bob was a scholar's scholar who dedicated his entire life to understanding psychological phenomena, and to sharing his ideas with others. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Fatigue influence on inhibitory control: Cardiovascular and performance findings elucidate the role of restraint intensity.

Various papers have detailed an analysis of behavioral restraint that provides suggestions regarding fatigue influence on inhibitory control. A well-known limited resource model by Baumeister suggests that fatigue should directly impair it. By contrast, the behavioral restraint analysis suggests-first-that fatigue might affect control indirectly by impacting the intensity of restraint. Second, fatigue should impair control consistently only when it leads people to withhold restraint effort. We evaluated these suggestions in an experiment that presented participants a task designed to induce low- or high- mental fatigue and then challenged them to maintain a neutral facial expression while watching a more- or less emotionally evocative film clip. As expected, cardiovascular assessments during the facial restraint period revealed interactional response patterns indicative of opposing fatigue influence on restraint intensity under low- as compared to high-evocativeness conditions. Also as expected, fatigue combined with evocativeness to produce a three versus one pattern of inhibitory control operationalized in terms of the duration of non-neutral facial displays. Control failure increased with evocativeness only when fatigue was high and increased with fatigue only when evocativeness was high. Findings support the restraint analysis suggestions, extend results from previous research, and bear out the promise of the restraint analysis for advancing understanding of inhibitory control.

Ability influence on effort and associated cardiovascular responses: Nocebo-Placebo evidence that perception is key.

Studies have documented the predictive utility of an integrative analysis of ability influence on effort and cardiovascular response. An assumption is that influence is driven by perception. We evaluated this altering ability perception through negative (nocebo) or positive (placebo) suggestion. Participants ingested a pill having been told it would reduce or enhance cognitive clarity. They then were presented a math task with the chance to earn an incentive if they met a low- or high performance standard. Analyses indicated higher reports of clarity during work among participants provided positive clarity instructions and a crossover clarity instruction x performance standard interaction for heart rate response. Responses were stronger for positive instruction participants when the standard was high, but stronger for negative instruction participants when it was low. Findings provide distinctive support for the assumption and suggest a fresh strategy for evaluating the impact of nocebo/placebo and other interventions on subjective experience.

Mortality salience, effort, and cardiovascular response to a bar-press challenge: Remarkably nuanced effects of a death prime on heart performance.

We presented participants with a bar-pressing challenge relevant to their identity after having exposed them to a prime that made their mortality more or less salient. For some participants, difficulty was low; for others, it was high; for the rest, it was unfixed. As expected, heart pre-ejection period responses-reflecting heart contraction force-were (a) stronger under high-salience conditions when difficulty was high and unfixed, but (b) low regardless of salience when difficulty was low. Findings bear out conceptually and extend results from a previous experiment. In doing so, they add substantively to a new line of support for terror management theory and document the predictive utility of a proposed blended analysis of associated effort processes. The blended analysis speaks to the way in which motives to manage existential terror should convert into active goal striving and to the impact that existential threat might have on aspects of autonomic arousal.

Sharon Stephens Brehm (1945-2018).

Presents an obituary for Sharon Stephens Brehm (1945-2018). Brehm was president of the American Psychological Association in 2007. Her presidential address was titled "Looking Ahead: The Future of Psychology and APA" (see the July-August 2008 issue of American Psychologist, Vol. 63, pp. 337-344). In her presidential term, she worked to increase diversity, interdisciplinarity, and internationalization in psychology. Major initiatives included task forces on integrative health care, math and science education, and institutional review boards. Sharon was a writer of the first order. She published numerous books, chapters, and articles, including wellreceived social psychology textbooks prepared with Saul Kassin and Steven Fein. One book of special note was her foundational The Application of Social Psychology to Clinical Practice (1976), which played a key role in inspiring interest in the social-clinical interface. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Outsiders' Thoughts on Generating Self-Regulatory-Depletion (Fatigue) Effects in Limited-Resource Experiments.

We offer thoughts pertaining to purported conceptual and replication crises that have been discussed in relation to the limited-resource model (LRM) of self-control, functioning as crisis outsiders who have been conducting related research concerned with determinants and cardiovascular correlates of effort. Guiding analyses in our laboratory convey important lessons about experimental generation of the now-classic LRM self-regulatory-fatigue effect on control. They do so by drawing attention to conditions that must be met in fatigue-induction and fatigue-influence phases of relevant experiments. One fundamental lesson is that even highly standardized fatigue-induction protocols cannot be expected to consistently allow definitive tests of this effect. Another is that the effect might emerge consistently only in a behavioral-restraint "sweet spot" of sorts-a multidimensional motivational space wherein rested study participants view restraint as possible and worthwhile and fatigued participants do not. Implications are identified and discussed.

Circadian mismatch and cardiovascular response to a performance challenge: Larks in morning and evening work sessions.

We presented morning chronotype ("Lark") university undergraduate volunteers a more or less difficult Sternberg-type recognition memory task either in the morning (8-11 am) or in the evening (5-8 pm) with instructions that they could win a prize if they were 85% successful. We established morning chronotype using the Composite Scale for Morningness (Smith et al., 1989), employing a tertile split on a pool of scale scores that ranged from 13 (extreme eveningness) to 55 (extreme morningness). Participants had scores above 37, with most participants identifying as White/Caucasian, Hispanic/Latino, or Black/African-American. Among women (final sample n = 81), systolic blood pressure and mean arterial pressure responses assessed during work formed a crossover pattern, being positively correspondent to difficulty in the morning but negatively correspondent to difficulty in the evening. Heart rate and heart pre-ejection period responses ran parallel in the morning but not the evening. Among men (final sample n = 41), cardiovascular responses differed neither with difficulty nor with time. Findings for women support the extension of a recent analysis of fatigue influence on effort and associated cardiovascular responses to the phenomenon of circadian mismatch. Findings for men do not support the extension but should be interpreted guardedly in light of prohibitively low cell ns and unexpected findings on key subjective measures.

Mental fatigue influence on effort-related cardiovascular response: extension across the regulatory (inhibitory)/non-regulatory performance dimension.

Participants first performed a scanning task that was weak (fatigue low) or strong (fatigue high) in self-regulatory (inhibitory) demand. They then were presented a cognitive challenge that had a strong regulatory component (the Stroop color-word conflict task) or a weak regulatory component (single-digit mental multiplication) with instructions that they would avoid noise if they attained a moderate performance standard. Analysis of cardiovascular data collected during the two work periods revealed fatigue main effects for systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and mean arterial blood pressure. The effects reflected stronger blood pressure responses for High Fatigue participants across work periods and regardless of the character of the challenge presented in work period 2. Results conceptually replicate previous mental fatigue findings, which have shown extension of fatigue influence across cognitive performance domains. At least as importantly, they also extend those findings by showing extension across a fresh and theoretically significant cognitive performance dimension.

Reported fatigue, difficulty, and cardiovascular response to a memory challenge.

Female undergraduates were presented the opportunity to earn a small chance of winning a modest prize by memorizing in 2 min two or six nonsense trigrams (meaningless series of three letters, such as AED). Analysis of cardiovascular measures taken during the work period indicated that systolic blood pressure responses first rose and then fell with self-reported fatigue in the two trigram condition. By contrast, the responses declined with self-reported fatigue in the six trigram condition, starting relatively high and ending low. Whereas systolic blood pressure responses were stronger for Six Trigram participants where fatigue was low, they tended to be stronger for Two Trigram participants where fatigue was moderate and were weak for both trigram groups where fatigue was high. Response patterns for diastolic blood pressure and, especially, mean arterial blood pressure, were similar. The blood pressure findings conceptually replicate and extend previous fatigue study results and provide further support for a recent conceptual analysis of fatigue influence on effort and associated cardiovascular responses.

Naturally-occurring fatigue and cardiovascular response to a simple memory challenge.

Participants first completed a state affect checklist that included a fatigue (energy-tiredness) index and a measure of mental sharpness. They then were presented a simple memory challenge. In the first minute of the two-minute work period, heart rate responses (1) rose with values on the fatigue index, and (2) fell with values on the measure of mental sharpness. In the second minute of the work period, the responses were unrelated to fatigue index and mental sharpness values. Follow-up analysis indicated mental sharpness mediation of fatigue influence on heart rate in Minute 1. First minute findings add substantively to the body of evidence supporting recent suggestions that fatigue can lead people to try harder and experience stronger cardiovascular responses when confronted with simple challenges. They also support the suggestion that fatigue might exert its influence on cardiovascular responses to a mental challenge by diminishing cognitive clarity, that is, by obscuring thought. Second minute findings are contrary to the fatigue suggestions, but could indicate that memorization was accomplished in the first minute. A practical implication of the first minute results is that real-world fatigue could elevate health risk by enhancing CV responses to mundane daily tasks.

Difficulty, effort and cardiovascular response to a working memory challenge: Older adults with and without mild cognitive impairment.

We presented cognitively healthy older adults and patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) three versions of a modified Sternberg memory task designed to range in difficulty from low to high. Among cognitively healthy older adults, blood pressure responses assessed during the work periods rose with difficulty. By contrast, among MCI patients, blood pressure responses assessed during the work periods were low irrespective of difficulty. Findings are discussed primarily in relation to a conceptual analysis concerned with ability determinants of effort (task engagement) and associated cardiovascular responses. They also are discussed in the context of other recent cardiovascular studies involving older adults and with regard to the potential for exaggerated cardiovascular responses to accelerate cognitive decline in advanced age.

Success importance and urge magnitude as determinants of cardiovascular response to a behavioral restraint challenge.

Decades of research have investigated a conceptual analysis concerned with determinants and cardiovascular correlates of effort in people confronted with performance challenges, that is, opportunities to alter some course of events by acting. One suggestion is that effort and associated cardiovascular responses should be determined jointly by the difficulty of meeting a challenge and the importance of doing so. The present experiment tested this in a context involving behavioral restraint, that is, effortful resistance against a behavioral impulse or urge. Participants were presented a mildly evocative violent film clip (restraint difficulty low) or a strongly evocative violent film clip (restraint difficulty high) with instructions to refrain from showing any facial response. Success was made more or less important through coordinated manipulations of outcome expectancy, ego-involvement and social evaluation. As expected, SBP responses assessed during the work period were proportional to clip evocativeness - i.e., the difficulty of the restraint challenge - when importance was high, but low regardless of clip evocativeness when importance was low. Findings conceptually replicate previous cardiovascular results and support extension of the guiding analysis to the behavioral restraint realm.

Effort analysis of gender differences in cardiovascular response: Further evidence involving a traditionally feminine incentive.

Participants were presented a moderately- or impossibly difficult cumulative mental addition task with instructions that they could win a traditionally feminine- or masculine incentive if they achieved a 90% success rate. When the incentive was feminine, systolic blood pressure responses during the task period were stronger under moderately difficult conditions among women, but low irrespective of difficulty among men - creating a gender difference only when difficulty was moderate. By contrast, when the incentive was masculine, systolic-, mean arterial- and, to a lesser degree, diastolic blood pressure responses during the task period were stronger under moderately difficult conditions irrespective of gender. The former finding confirmed expectations and adds substantively to the body of evidence favoring a recent effort analysis of gender influence on CV response to performance challenge. The latter findings conflict with what was first expected, but can be understood in terms of post hoc reasoning extended in light of participants' ratings of the masculine incentive.

Sex differences and incentive effects on perceptual and cardiovascular responses to cold pressor pain.

OBJECTIVE: Sex differences in pain perception have been widely reported, with women typically displaying greater pain sensitivity than men, but the mechanisms underlying these differences remain unclear. One possible explanation suggests that men are more motivated to tolerate and suppress expressions of pain because of the masculine sex role, whereas the feminine sex role encourages pain expression and produces lower motivation to tolerate pain among women. METHODS: To examine the influence of motivation on perceptual and cardiovascular responses to pain among women and men, different levels of monetary incentive (high vs. low incentive) were provided to a group of 81 healthy young adults undergoing the cold pressor pain procedure. It was anticipated that men would have greater endogenous motivation and would therefore be less affected by the external incentive. RESULTS: Men had higher pain thresholds and tolerances and lower pain ratings than women, but the incentive condition produced no significant effect on pain responses. Resting blood pressure was positively correlated with pain tolerance among the low incentive group, whereas blood pressure reactivity to the cold pressor predicted pain tolerance in the high incentive group. CONCLUSIONS: Thus, monetary incentive did not influence pain responses, but the relationship between cardiovascular measures and pain responses was influenced by the incentive manipulation. Potential explanations for the observed results are presented, and the implications for applying the biopsychosocial model to pain research are discussed.

Sex differences in perceptual and cardiovascular responses to pain: the influence of a perceived ability manipulation.

Sex differences in responses to experimental pain have been widely reported, with women typically showing lower pain threshold and tolerance than men. One possible explanation for these differences is that traditional gender roles may lead to sex differences in perceived ability to tolerate pain. To address this possibility, the present study evaluated the influence of a sex-related perceived ability manipulation on pain tolerance and cardiovascular responses to ischemic pain assessed via the submaximal effort tourniquet procedure. A sample of 68 young adults (35 women, 33 men) were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 perceived ability conditions, which depicted either women (FEM condition) or men (MASC condition) as more able to tolerate the painful task. The results indicated that men had higher pain tolerance than women. Although there was no overall effect of the experimental condition, only men in the FEM condition had higher tolerance than women. Also, men had greater blood pressure reactivity than women, and further analysis showed that women in the MASC condition had the lowest systolic blood pressure reactivity. Cardiovascular reactivity and motivation to tolerate the pain were positively correlated with pain tolerance only among men in the FEM condition. These findings indicate that the perceived ability manipulation produced only modest effects on pain tolerance and cardiovascular reactivity, but the relationship of cardiovascular and subjective responses to pain tolerance differed across conditions. These findings suggest that perceived ability may contribute to perceptual and cardiovascular responses to pain in a complex fashion, and further research to explicate these relationships is needed.