Hindered dialkyl ether synthesis with electrogenerated carbocations.

Hindered ethers are of high value for various applications; however, they remain an underexplored area of chemical space because they are difficult to synthesize via conventional reactions1,2. Such motifs are highly coveted in medicinal chemistry, because extensive substitution about the ether bond prevents unwanted metabolic processes that can lead to rapid degradation in vivo. Here we report a simple route towards the synthesis of hindered ethers, in which electrochemical oxidation is used to liberate high-energy carbocations from simple carboxylic acids. These reactive carbocation intermediates, which are generated with low electrochemical potentials, capture an alcohol donor under non-acidic conditions; this enables the formation of a range of ethers (more than 80 have been prepared here) that would otherwise be difficult to access. The carbocations can also be intercepted by simple nucleophiles, leading to the formation of hindered alcohols and even alkyl fluorides. This method was evaluated for its ability to circumvent the synthetic bottlenecks encountered in the preparation of 12 chemical scaffolds, leading to higher yields of the required products, in addition to substantial reductions in the number of steps and the amount of labour required to prepare them. The use of molecular probes and the results of kinetic studies support the proposed mechanism and the role of additives under the conditions examined. The reaction manifold that we report here demonstrates the power of electrochemistry to access highly reactive intermediates under mild conditions and, in turn, the substantial improvements in efficiency that can be achieved with these otherwise-inaccessible intermediates.

A Disconnection for Rapid Access to Heterocyclic Benzylic Amines with Fully Substituted α-Carbons.

2- or 4-Pyridyl benzylic amines represent a privileged motif in drug discovery. However, the formation of heterocyclic benzylic amines with fully substituted α-carbons can require the execution of lengthy synthetic routes, which limit their application. Addition of various nucleophilic agents to Ellman's imines has been well established; however, there is no precedented literature reported for pyridyl-type nucleophiles, which are very important for medicinal chemistry. In this letter, we disclose the development of a one-step synthesis of heterocyclic benzylic amines with fully substituted α-carbons from heteroaryl halides and sulfinyl imines. Starting from 2,4-dibromopyridine, regioselective synthesis of 2- or 4-pyridyl benzylic amines could be achieved by choosing toluene or MTBE as a solvent.

Catalytic σ-Bond Annulation with Ambiphilic Organohalides Enabled by ß-X Elimination.

We describe a catalytic cascade sequence involving directed C(sp3 )-H activation followed by ß-heteroatom elimination to generate a PdII (π-alkene) intermediate that then undergoes redox-neutral annulation with an ambiphilic aryl halide to access 5- and 6-membered (hetero)cycles. Various alkyl C(sp3 )-oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur bonds can be selectively activated, and the annulation proceeds with high diastereoselectivity. The method enables modification of amino acids with good retention of enantiomeric excess, as well as σ-bond ring-opening/ring-closing transfiguration of low-strain heterocycles. Despite its mechanistic complexity, the method employs simple conditions and is operationally straightforward to perform.

Mapping Ambiphile Reactivity Trends in the Anti-(Hetero)annulation of Non-Conjugated Alkenes via PdII /PdIV Catalysis.

In this study, we systematically evaluate different ambiphilic organohalides for their ability to participate in anti-selective carbo- or heteroannulation with non-conjugated alkenyl amides under PdII /PdIV catalysis. Detailed optimization of the reaction conditions has led to protocols for synthesizing tetrahydropyridines, tetralins, pyrrolidines, and other carbo/heterocyclic cores via [n+2] (n=3-5) (hetero)annulation. Expansion of scope to otherwise unreactive ambiphilic haloketones through PdII /amine co-catalysis is also demonstrated. Compared to other annulation processes, this method proceeds via a distinct PdII /PdIV mechanism involving Wacker-type directed nucleopalladation. This difference results in unique reactivity and selectivity patterns, as revealed through assessment of reaction scope and competition experiments.

A Radical Approach to Anionic Chemistry: Synthesis of Ketones, Alcohols, and Amines.

Historically accessed through two-electron, anionic chemistry, ketones, alcohols, and amines are of foundational importance to the practice of organic synthesis. After placing this work in proper historical context, this Article reports the development, full scope, and a mechanistic picture for a strikingly different way of forging such functional groups. Thus, carboxylic acids, once converted to redox-active esters (RAEs), can be utilized as formally nucleophilic coupling partners with other carboxylic derivatives (to produce ketones), imines (to produce benzylic amines), or aldehydes (to produce alcohols). The reactions are uniformly mild, operationally simple, and, in the case of ketone synthesis, broad in scope (including several applications to the simplification of synthetic problems and to parallel synthesis). Finally, an extensive mechanistic study of the ketone synthesis is performed to trace the elementary steps of the catalytic cycle and provide the end-user with a clear and understandable rationale for the selectivity, role of additives, and underlying driving forces involved.

A General Amino Acid Synthesis Enabled by Innate Radical Cross-Coupling.

The direct union of primary, secondary, and tertiary carboxylic acids with a chiral glyoxylate-derived sulfinimine provides rapid access into a variety of enantiomerically pure α-amino acids (>85 examples). Characterized by operational simplicity, this radical-based reaction enables the modular assembly of exotic α-amino acids, including both unprecedented structures and those of established industrial value. The described method performs well in high-throughput library synthesis, and has already been implemented in three distinct medicinal chemistry campaigns.

Asymmetric Total Synthesis of Propindilactone G.

A concise total synthesis of (+)-propindilactone G, a nortriterpenoid isolated from the stems of Schisandra propinqua var. propinqua, has been achieved for the first time. The key steps of the synthesis include an asymmetric Diels-Alder reaction, a Pauson-Khand reaction, a Pd-catalyzed reductive hydrogenolysis reaction, and an oxidative heterocoupling reaction. These reactions enabled the synthesis of (+)-propindilactone G in only 20 steps. As a consequence of our synthetic studies, the structure of (+)-propindilactone G has been revised.

Anti-selective [3+2] (Hetero)annulation of non-conjugated alkenes via directed nucleopalladation.

2,3-Dihydrobenzofurans and indolines are common substructures in medicines and natural products. Herein, we describe a method that enables direct access to these core structures from non-conjugated alkenyl amides and ortho-iodoanilines/phenols. Under palladium(II) catalysis this [3 + 2] heteroannulation proceeds in an anti-selective fashion and tolerates a wide variety of functional groups. N-Acetyl, -tosyl, and -alkyl substituted ortho-iodoanilines, as well as free -NH2 variants, are all effective. Preliminary results with carbon-based coupling partners also demonstrate the viability of forming indane core structures using this approach. Experimental and computational studies on reactions with phenols support a mechanism involving turnover-limiting, endergonic directed oxypalladation, followed by intramolecular oxidative addition and reductive elimination.

Development of a Late-Stage Diversification Strategy for the 4- and 5-Positions of 4,5,6-Trisubstituted Indazoles.

Indazoles represent a privileged motif in drug discovery. However, the formation of highly substituted indazoles can require the execution of lengthy synthetic routes with minimal opportunities to introduce diversity. In this report, we disclose the development of a late-stage diversification strategy for the 4- and 5-positions of 4,5,6-trisubstituted indazoles. A regioselective C-H functionalization and subsequent nucleophilic aromatic substitution provide two sequential points of diversification. The synthetic sequence delivers rapid access to an array of 4,5,6-trisubstituted indazoles in only four steps from readily available starting materials.

Cu-Catalyzed Hydroboration of Benzylidenecyclopropanes: Reaction Optimization, (Hetero)Aryl Scope, and Origins of Pathway Selectivity.

The copper-catalyzed hydroboration of benzylidenecyclopropanes, conveniently accessed in one step from readily available benzaldehydes, is reported. Under otherwise identical reaction conditions, two distinct phosphine ligands grant access to different products by either suppressing or promoting cyclopropane opening via ß-carbon elimination. Computational studies provide insight into how the rigidity and steric environment of these different bis-phosphine ligands influence the relative activation energies of ß-carbon elimination versus protodecupration from the key benzylcopper intermediate. The method tolerates a wide variety of heterocycles prevalent in clinical and pre-clinical drug development, giving access to valuable synthetic intermediates. The versatility of the tertiary cyclopropylboronic ester products is demonstrated through several derivatization reactions.

Palladium(ii)-catalyzed γ-selective hydroarylation of alkenyl carbonyl compounds with arylboronic acids.

A catalytic γ-selective syn-hydroarylation of alkenyl carbonyl compounds using arylboronic acids has been developed using a substrate directivity approach with a palladium(ii) catalyst. This method tolerates a wide range of functionalized (hetero)arylboronic acids and a variety of substitution patterns on the alkene. Preliminary mechanistic studies suggest that transmetalation is rate-limiting.

Total synthesis of a key series of vinblastines modified at C4 that define the importance and surprising trends in activity.

The total synthesis and evaluation of a key systematic series of vinblastines that incorporate the first deep-seated changes to the substituent at C4 are detailed. The synthetic approach features an expanded and redefined scope of a 1,3,4-oxadiazole [4 + 2]/[3 + 2] cycloaddition cascade in which electronically mismatched electron-deficient trisubstituted alkenes and unactivated trisubstituted alkenes were found to productively initiate the cycloaddition cascade with tethered electron-deficient 1,3,4-oxadiazoles. Such cycloaddition cascades were used to directly introduce altered C4 substituents, providing the basis for concise total syntheses of a series of C4 modified vindolines and their subsequent single-step incorporation into the corresponding synthetic vinblastines in routes as short as 8-12 steps. Evaluation of the synthetic vinblastines revealed a surprisingly large impact and role of the C4 substituent on activity even though it was previously not thought to intimately interact with the biological target tubulin. Only the introduction of a C4 methyl ester, a constitutional isomer of vinblastine in which the carbonyl carbon and ester oxygen of the C4 acetate are transposed, provided a synthetic vinblastine that matched the potency of the natural product. In contrast, even introduction of a C4 acetamide or N-methyl carboxamide, which incorporate single heavy atom exchanges (amide NH for ester oxygen) in vinblastine or the C4 methyl ester, provided compounds that were ≥10-fold less active than vinblastine. Other C4 acetate replacements, including a C4 amine, carboxylic acid, hydroxymethyl or acetoxymethyl group, led to even greater reductions in potency. Even replacement of the C4 acetoxy group or its equally active C4 methyl ester with an ethyl or isopropyl ester led to 10-fold or more reductions in activity. These remarkable trends in activity, which correlate with relative tubulin binding affinities, retrospectively may be ascribed to the role the substituent serves as a H-bond acceptor for α-tubulin Lys336 and Asn329 side chains at a site less tolerant of a H-bond donor, placing the methyl group of the C4 acetate or C4 methyl ester in a spatially restricted and well-defined hydrophobic half pocket created by a surrounding well-ordered loop. This remarkable impact of the C4 substituent, its stringency, and even the magnitude of its effect are extraordinary, and indicate that its presence was selected in Nature to enhance the effects of vinblastine and related natural products.

Vinblastine 20' Amides: Synthetic Analogues That Maintain or Improve Potency and Simultaneously Overcome Pgp-Derived Efflux and Resistance.

A series of 180 vinblastine 20' amides were prepared in three steps from commercially available starting materials, systematically exploring a typically inaccessible site in the molecule enlisting a powerful functionalization strategy. Clear structure-activity relationships and a structural model were developed in the studies which provided many such 20' amides that exhibit substantial and some even remarkable enhancements in potency, many that exhibit further improvements in activity against a Pgp overexpressing resistant cancer cell line, and an important subset of the vinblastine analogues that display little or no differential in activity against a matched pair of vinblastine sensitive and resistant (Pgp overexpressing) cell lines. The improvements in potency directly correlated with target tubulin binding affinity, and the reduction in differential functional activity against the sensitive and Pgp overexpressing resistant cell lines was found to correlate directly with an impact on Pgp-derived efflux.

Asymmetric Total Synthesis of Propindilactone†G, Part†2: Enantioselective Construction of the Fully Functionalized BCDE Ring System.

The enantioselective synthesis of the fully functionalized BCDE tetracyclic ring system of propindilactone G (A) is reported. Several synthetic methods were developed and applied to achieve this goal, including: 1) an asymmetric Diels-Alder reaction in the presence of Hayashi's catalyst for the synthesis of optically pure key intermediate 3; 2) an intramolecular Pauson-Khand reaction (PKR) for the stereoselective synthesis of the BCDE ring with an all-carbon chiral quaternary center at the C13 position by using the TMS-substituted acetylene as the substrate; and 3) Pd-catalyzed reductive hydrogenolysis for the stereoselective synthesis of the fully functionalized BCDE tetracyclic ring system. The chemistry developed herein provided a greater understanding of the total synthesis propindilactone G (A) and its analogues.

Asymmetric total syntheses of ansamacrolactams (+)-Q-1047H-A-A and (+)-Q-1047H-R-A.

The total syntheses of ansamacrolactams (+)-Q-1047H-A-A (16) and (+)-Q-1047H-R-A (17) have been achieved for the first time in 17 steps, leading to the reassignment of the relative stereochemistries and absolute configurations of their natural counterparts. The key steps in the synthetic work included an asymmetric chelation-controlled vinylogous Mukaiyama aldol reaction for the stereoselective synthesis of the syn-aldol adduct 7b and an intramolecular SmI(2)-mediated Reformatsky reaction for the formation of the macrocyclic lactam 14.

Asymmetric total synthesis and structural elucidation of NFAT-68.

Total synthesis of NFAT-68 (7) has been achieved and its relative stereochemistry has been determined. A key step thereof is the utilization of the chelation-controlled vinylogous Mukaiyama aldol reaction (VMAR) to stereoselectively synthesize the syn-aldol product 8. This developed chemistry is anticipated to have wider application in total syntheses of many other natural products.