A new isopropyl esterification method for quantitative profiling of short-chain fatty acids in human and cow milk by gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer.

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) content in milk may have been underestimated due to the neglect of the esterified SCFA content and the lack of an accurate detection method, especially for C1:0, C2:0, and C3:0 SCFA. In this study, an accurate GC-MS profiling method was established for 10 SCFA. A 2-step esterification, including alkaline saponification (60°C for 30 min) and acid-catalyzed esterification (80°C for 150 min) in water/isopropyl/hexane (1:2:1, volume ratio), was found to be the most suitable for the quantification of esterified and nonesterified SCFA analysis. The validation results demonstrate satisfactory linearity, sensitivity, matrix effects, precision, and accuracy. The recoveries of nonesterified and esterified SCFA ranged from 82.78% to 112.49%, respectively. Human milk is distinguished from cow milk by its higher C1:0 and C2:0 content and lower C4:0 and C6:0 content. This method successfully accomplished qualitative and quantitative estimation of all 10 SCFA in milk, including both nonesterified and esterified SCFA. Furthermore, whether our method is applicable for the determination of SCFA in serum, rumen fluid, and feces remains to be explored.

Enterogenic metabolomics signatures of depression: what are the possibilities for the future.

INTRODUCTION: An increasing number of studies indicate that the microbiota-gut-brain axis is an important pathway involved in the onset and progression of depression. The responses of the organism (or its microorganisms) to external cues cannot be separated from a key intermediate element: their metabolites. AREAS COVERED: In recent years, with the rapid development of metabolomics, an increasing amount of metabolites has been detected and studied, especially the gut metabolites. Nevertheless, the increasing amount of metabolites described has not been reflected in a better understanding of their functions and metabolic pathways. Moreover, our knowledge of the biological interactions among metabolites is also incomplete, which limits further studies on the connections between the microbial-entero-brain axis and depression. EXPERT OPINION: This paper summarizes the current knowledge on depression-related metabolites and their involvement in the onset and progression of this disease. More importantly, this paper summarized metabolites from the intestine, and defined them as enterogenic metabolites, to further clarify the function of intestinal metabolites and their biochemical cross-talk, providing theoretical support and new research directions for the prevention and treatment of depression.

Strontium Chloride Improves Reproductive Function and Alters Gut Microbiota in Male Rats.

Strontium (Sr) is an essential trace element in the human body and plays an important role in regulating male reproductive health. Recent studies have shown that gut flora plays a key role in maintaining spermatogenesis, as well as testicular health, through the gut-testis axis. At present, it is unclear whether gut microbiota can mediate the effects of Sr on sperm quality, and what the underlying mechanisms may be. We investigated the effects of different concentrations of strontium chloride (SrCl2) solutions (0, 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg BW) on reproductive function and gut microbiota in male Wistar rats (6-8 weeks, 250 ± 20 g). All the animals were euthanized after 37 days of treatment. The Sr-50 group significantly increased sperm concentration, sperm motility, and sperm viability in rats. After Sr treatment, serum and testicular testosterone (T) and Sr levels increased in a dose-dependent manner with increasing Sr concentration. At the same time, we also found that testicular marker enzymes (ACP, LDH) and testosterone marker genes (StAR, 3ß-HSD, and Cyp11a1) increased significantly in varying degrees after Sr treatment, while serum NO levels decreased significantly in a dose-dependent manner. Further investigation of intestinal flora showed that SrCl2 affected the composition of gut microbiome, but did not affect the richness and diversity of gut microbiota. Sr treatment reduced the number of bacteria with negative effects on reproductive health, such as Bacteroidetes, Tenericutes, Romboutsia, Ruminococcaceae_UCG_014, Weissella, and Eubacterium_coprostanoligenes_group, and added bacteria with negative effects on reproductive health, such as Jeotgalicoccus. To further explore the Sr and the relationship between the gut microbiota, we conducted a Spearman correlation analysis, and the results showed that the gut microbiota was closely correlated with Sr content in serum and testicular tissue, sex hormone levels, and testicular marker enzymes. Additionally, gut microbiota can also regulate each other and jointly maintain the homeostasis of the body's internal environment. However, we found no significant correlation between intestinal flora and sperm quality in this study, which may be related to the small sample size of our 16S rDNA sequencing. In conclusion, the Sr-50 group significantly increased T levels and sperm quality, and improved the levels of testicular marker enzymes and testosterone marker genes in the rats. Sr treatment altered the gut flora of the rats. However, further analysis of the effects of gut microbiota in mediating the effects of SrCl2 on male reproductive function is needed. This study may improve the current understanding of the interaction between Sr, reproductive health, and gut microbiota, providing evidence for the development of Sr-rich foods and the prevention of male fertility decline.

Fatty acid profiles of milk from Holstein cows, Jersey cows, buffalos, yaks, humans, goats, camels, and donkeys based on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.

Due to the diversity and limitation of determination methods, published data on the fatty acid (FA) compositions of different milk samples have contributed to inaccurate comparisons. In this study, we developed a high-throughput gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method to determinate milk FA, and the proposed method had satisfactory linearity, sensitivity, accuracy, and precision. We also analyzed the FA compositions of 237 milk samples from Holstein cows, Jersey cows, buffalos, yaks, humans, goats, donkeys, and camels. Holstein, Jersey, goat, and buffalo milks contained high content of even-chain saturated FA, whereas goat milk had higher content of medium- and short-chain FA (MSCFA). Yak and camel milk are potential functional foods due to their high levels of odd- and branched-chain FA and low ratios of n-6 to n-3 polyunsaturated FA (PUFA). Human milk contained lower levels of saturated FA, MSCFA, and conjugated linoleic acid, and higher levels of monounsaturated FA and PUFA. As a special nonruminant milk, donkey milk contained low levels of monounsaturated FA and high levels of PUFA and MSCFA. Based on the FA profiles of 8 types of milk, nonruminant milk was distinct from ruminant milk, whereas camel and yak milk were different from other ruminant milks and considered as potential functional foods for balanced human diet.

Loss of bioactive microRNAs in cow's milk by ultra-high-temperature treatment but not by pasteurization treatment.

BACKGROUND: Milk microRNA (miRNA) with bioactivity is beneficial for human health. However, the effect of heat treatment on miRNA in milk is still not clear. In this study, the miRNAs in raw (RM), pasteurized (PM) and ultra-high-temperature (UHT) milk (UM) from the same batch were extracted, sequenced and analyzed. RESULTS: The results showed that there was a significant difference in miRNAs between RM and UM, but not between RM and PM. The total read counts of milk miRNAs were significantly decreased by heat treatment, with the least counts in UM (P < 0.05). The average length and GC percentage of miRNAs were significantly reduced by heat treatment (P < 0.05), while there was no significant difference in these terms between RM and PM. The content of miRNAs was verified by qPCR, finding that miR-17-5p, miR-25, miR-27b and miR-9-5p were significantly reduced in UM (P < 0.05) but not significantly affected in PM (except miR-27b). In addition, the targeting gene ontology enrichment functions of the different presented miRNAs were mostly enriched in biological process, cellular component and molecular function. The top 20 enriched miRNAs with different levels in heat-treated milk were identified by the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment analysis. Interestingly, most of the functions of these miRNA targeting genes are involved in cancer or inflammation activity. CONCLUSION: This study revealed that the bioactive miRNA in RM was lost after UHT treatment but not in pasteurized treatment. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Proteomics Analysis Reveals Altered Nutrients in the Whey Proteins of Dairy Cow Milk with Different Thermal Treatments.

Thermal treatments of milk induce changes in the properties of milk whey proteins. The aim of this study was to investigate the specific changes related to nutrients in the whey proteins of dairy cow milk after pasteurization at 85 °C for 15 s or ultra-high temperature (UHT) at 135 °C for 15 s. A total of 223 whey proteins were confidently identified and quantified by TMT-based global discovery proteomics in this study. We found that UHT thermal treatment resulted in an increased abundance of 17 proteins, which appeared to show heat insensitivity. In contrast, 15 heat-sensitive proteins were decreased in abundance after UHT thermal treatment. Some of the heat-sensitive proteins were connected with the biological immune functionality, suggesting that UHT thermal treatment results in a partial loss of immune function in the whey proteins of dairy cow milk. The information reported here will considerably expand our knowledge about the degree of heat sensitivity in the whey proteins of dairy cow milk in response to different thermal treatments and offer a knowledge-based reference to aid in choosing dairy products. It is worth noting that the whey proteins (lactoperoxidase and lactoperoxidase) in milk that were significantly decreased by high heat treatment in a previous study (142 °C) showed no significant difference in the present study (135 °C). These results may imply that an appropriately reduced heating intensity of UHT retains the immunoactive proteins to the maximum extent possible.

Rapid determination of furosine in milk using microwave-assisted HCl hydrolysis and ultra-performance liquid chromatography.

Because the conventional methods for furosine analysis are time-consuming, a modified method is presented to improve analysis efficiency. Microwave-assisted HCl hydrolysis was performed at 140, 150, and 160°C for 10 to 200 min, with 6, 8, or 9 M HCl. The hydrolysate purification process was carried out using only paper and membrane filtration. An ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) system was used to achieve rapid analysis of furosine. The results showed that microwave-assisted HCl hydrolysis at 8 M and 160°C led to a stable furosine yield and took only 40 min. The UPLC analysis was completed in 8 min. The modified method was validated and obtained limit of detection at 3 µg/L, limit of quantitation of 10 µg/L, linearity range of 0.2 to 5.0 mg/L, 80.5 to 94.2% recoveries from spiked samples, and coefficients of variation of 2.2 to 6.8%. The modified method is rapid and reliable for the determination of furosine in milk.

Furosine, a Maillard Reaction Product, Triggers Necroptosis in Hepatocytes by Regulating the RIPK1/RIPK3/MLKL Pathway.

As one of the typical Maillard reaction products, furosine has been widely reported in a variety of heat-processed food. Though furosine was shown to be toxic on organs, its toxicity mechanism is still unclear. The present study aimed to investigate the toxicity mechanism of furosine in liver tissue. An intragastric gavage mice model (42-day administration, 0.1/0.25/0.5 g/kg of furosine per day) and a mice primary hepatocyte model were employed to investigate the toxicity mechanism of furosine on mice liver tissue. A metabonomics analysis of mice liver, serum, and red blood cells (RBC) was performed. The special metabolic mediator of furosine, lysophosphatidylcholine 18:0 (LPC (18:0)) was identified. Then, the effect of the upstream gene phospholipase A2 gamma (PLA2-3) on LPC (18:0), as well as the effect of furosine (100 mg/L) on the receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase (RIPK)1/RIPK3/mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein (MLKL) pathway and inflammatory factors, was determined in liver tissue and primary hepatocytes. PLA2-3 was found to regulate the level of LPC (18:0) and activate the expression of RIPK1, RIPK3, P-MLKL, and of the inflammatory factors including tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and interleukin (IL-1ß), both in liver tissue and in primary hepatocytes. Upon treatment with furosine, the upstream sensor PLA2-3 activated the RIPK1/RIPK3/MLKL necroptosis pathway and caused inflammation by regulating the expression of LPC (18:0), which further caused liver damage.

Identification and proteolytic activity quantification of Pseudomonas spp. isolated from different raw milks at storage temperatures.

Commercial milk products worldwide come not only from cows, but also from goats, buffaloes, camels, and yaks. Milk from non-bovine animals is important culturally and economically. Pseudomonas spp. are frequently linked to milk spoilage under storage temperatures. The objectives of this study were to identify Pseudomonas spp. isolated from goat, buffalo, camel, and yak milks, and to measure proteolytic activity of Pseudomonas spp. under different storage temperatures. Raw milk samples of goat (n = 50), buffalo (n = 25), camel (n = 25), and yak (n = 25) were collected from 5 provinces in China. Pseudomonas spp. were analyzed by Pseudomonas-specific 16S, universal 16S rRNA, and rpoB gene sequence analyses. Proteolytic activity on milk agar, quantification via the trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid assay at 2°C, 4°C, 7°C, 10°C and 25°C, as well as alkaline peptidase gene (aprX) identification were performed to ascertain the proteolytic activity of these isolates. Pseudomonas spp. were found in 46 samples out of total 125 samples. A total of 67 Pseudomonas spp. were identified. Of Pseudomonas isolates, we obtained extracellular peptidase activity in 7 (10.4%) at 2°C, 17 (25.4%) at 4°C, 24 (35.8%) at 7°C, 39 (58.2%) at 10°C, and 41 (61.2%) at 25°C. The results revealed that a wide diversity of Pseudomonas spp. were present in different non-bovine raw milks, with the ability to produce peptidases at storage temperatures. However, proteolytic activity varied widely among the peptidase-positive isolates. A majority of isolates from yak milk had high proteolytic activity.

Strong, sudden cooling alleviates the inflammatory responses in heat-stressed dairy cows based on iTRAQ proteomic analysis.

This study was designed to investigate the effects of sudden cooling on the physiological responses of 12 heat-stressed Holstein dairy cows using an isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantification (iTRAQ) labeling approach. Plasma samples were collected from these cows during heat stress (HS), and after strong, sudden cooling in the summer (16 days later). We compared plasma proteomic data before and after sudden cooling to identify the differentially abundant proteins. The results showed that sudden cooling in summer effectively alleviated the negative consequences of HS on body temperature and production variables. Expressions of plasma hemoglobin alpha and hemoglobin beta were upregulated, whereas lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP) and haptoglobin were downregulated in this process. The increase of hemoglobin after cooling may improve oxygen transport and alleviate the rise in respiration rates in heat-stressed dairy cows. The decrease of LBP and haptoglobin suggests that the inflammatory responses caused by HS are relieved after cooling. Our findings provide new insight into the physiological changes that occur when heat-stressed dairy cows experience strong, sudden cooling.

Blood amino acids profile responding to heat stress in dairy cows.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this experiment was to investigate the effects of heat stress on milk protein and blood amino acid profile in dairy cows. METHODS: Twelve dairy cows with the similar parity, days in milk and milk yield were randomly divided into two groups with six cows raised in summer and others in autumn, respectively. Constant managerial conditions and diets were maintained during the experiment. Measurements and samples for heat stress and no heat stress were obtained according to the physical alterations of the temperature-humidity index. RESULTS: Results showed that heat stress significantly reduced the milk protein content (p<0.05). Heat stress tended to decrease milk yield (p = 0.09). Furthermore, heat stress decreased dry matter intake, the concentration of blood glucose and insulin, and glutathione peroxidase activity, while increased levels of non-esterified fatty acid and malondialdehyde (p<0.05). Additionally, the concentrations of blood Thr involved in immune response were increased under heat stress (p<0.05). The concentration of blood Ala, Glu, Asp, and Gly, associated with gluconeogenesis, were also increased under heat stress (p<0.05). However, the concentration of blood Lys that promotes milk protein synthesis was decreased under heat stress (p<0.05). CONCLUSION: In conclusion, this study revealed that more amino acids were required for maintenance but not for milk protein synthesis under heat stress, and the decreased availability of amino acids for milk protein synthesis may be attributed to competition of immune response and gluconeogenesis.

N-glycosylation proteomic characterization and cross-species comparison of milk whey proteins from dairy animals.

Glycosylated proteins in milk have been implicated in multiple biological roles. However, the N-glycoprotein components and their complexity in milk whey from dairy animals are not well characterized. Here, a modified proteomics approach consisting of N-glycopeptide enrichment and identification was used to map the N-glycoproteome profile of milk whey from Holstein and Jersey cows, buffaloes, yaks, goats, camels, and horses. A total of 233 N-glycosylation sites, corresponding to 147 N-glycoproteins, were detected in the studied animals. Most of the identified N-glycosylation sites were not characterized in the database and were considered as unknown. Functional analysis of the identified glycoproteins demonstrated that response to stimulus was the most abundant GO category shared in the studied animals according to their annotation. Lysosome, glycosaminoglycan degradation, and extracellular matrix-receptor interaction pathways were shared between Holstein and Jersey cows, and yaks. N-glycoprotein components of milk whey from Holstein and Jersey cows, buffaloes, yaks, and goats were more similar to each other than to those of camels and horses. These results significantly extend the number of known N-glycosylation sites and reveal in-depth composition and potential functions of N-glycoproteins in milk whey, which in turn provides insights to further explore N-glycoprotein biosynthesis in the studied animals.

Metabolic responses and "omics" technologies for elucidating the effects of heat stress in dairy cows.

Heat stress (HS) negatively affects various industries that rely on animal husbandry, particularly the dairy industry. A better understanding of metabolic responses in HS dairy cows is necessary to elucidate the physiological mechanisms of HS and offer a new perspective for future research. In this paper, we review the current knowledge of responses of body metabolism (lipid, carbohydrate, and protein), endocrine profiles, and bovine mammary epithelial cells during HS. Furthermore, we summarize the metabolomics and proteomics data that have revealed the metabolite profiles and differentially expressed proteins that are a feature of HS in dairy cows. Analysis of metabolic changes and "omics" data demonstrated that HS is characterized by reduced lipolysis, increased glycolysis, and catabolism of amino acids in dairy cows. Here, analysis of the impairment of immune function during HS and of the inflammation that arises after long-term HS might suggest new strategies to ameliorate the effects of HS in dairy production.

Metabolomic analysis of alterations in lipid oxidation, carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism in dairy goats caused by exposure to Aflotoxin B1.

The purposes of this study were to investigate the systemic and characteristic metabolites in the serum of dairy goats induced by aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) exposure and to further understand the endogenous metabolic alterations induced by it. A nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-based metabonomic approach was used to analyse the metabolic alterations in dairy goats that were induced by low doses of AFB1 (50 µg/kg DM). We found that AFB1 exposure caused significant elevations of glucose, citrate, acetate, acetoacetate, betaine, and glycine yet caused reductions of lactate, ketone bodies (acetate, ß-hydroxybutyrate), amino acids (citrulline, leucine/isoleucine, valine, creatine) and cell membrane structures (choline, lipoprotein, N-acetyl glycoproteins) in the serum. These data indicated that AFB1 caused endogenous metabolic changes in various metabolic pathways, including cell membrane-associated metabolism, the tricarboxylic acid cycle, glycolysis, lipids, and amino acid metabolism. These findings provide both a comprehensive insight into the metabolic aspects of AFB1-induced adverse effects on dairy goats and a method for monitoring dairy animals exposed to low doses of AFB1.

N-glycosylation proteomic characterization and cross-species comparison of milk fat globule membrane proteins from mammals.

Glycosylation of proteins has been implicated in various biological functions and has received much attention; however, glycoprotein components and inter-species complexity have not yet been elucidated fully in milk proteins. N-linked glycosylation sites and glycoproteins in milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) fractions were investigated by combining N-glycosylated peptides enrichment and high-accuracy Q Exactive identification, to map the N-glycoproteome profiles in Holstein and Jersey cows, buffaloes, yaks, goats, camels, horses, and humans. A total of 399 N-glycoproteins with 677 glycosylation sites were identified in the MFGM fractions of the studied mammals. Most glycosylation sites in humans were classified as known and those in the other studied mammals as unknown, according to Swiss-Prot annotations. Functionally, most of the identified glycoproteins were associated with the 'response to stimulus' GO category. N-glycosylated protein components of MFGM fractions from Holstein and Jersey cows, buffaloes, yaks, and goats were more similar to each other compared with those of camels, horses and human. The findings increased the number of known N-glycosylation sites in the milk from dairy animal species, revealed the complexity of the MFGM glycoproteome, and provided useful information to further explore the mechanism of MFGM glycoproteins biosynthesis among the studied mammals.

Long-term heat stress induces the inflammatory response in dairy cows revealed by plasma proteome analysis.

In this work we employed a comparative proteomic approach to evaluate seasonal heat stress and investigate proteomic alterations in plasma of dairy cows. Twelve lactating Holstein dairy cows were used and the treatments were: heat stress (n = 6) in hot summer (at the beginning of the moderate heat stress) and no heat stress (n = 6) in spring natural ambient environment, respectively. Subsequently, heat stress treatment lasted 23 days (at the end of the moderate heat stress) to investigate the alterations of plasma proteins, which might be employed as long-term moderate heat stress response in dairy cows. Changes in plasma proteins were analyzed by two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE) combined with mass spectrometry. Analysis of the properties of the identified proteins revealed that the alterations of plasma proteins were related to inflammation in long-term moderate heat stress. Furthermore, the increase in plasma tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) directly demonstrated that long-term moderate heat stress caused an inflammatory response in dairy cows.

Immortalized bovine mammary epithelial cells express stem cell markers and differentiate in vitro.

The bovine mammary epithelial cell is a secretory cell, and its cell number and secretory activity determine milk production. In this study, we immortalized a bovine mammary epithelial cell line by SV40 large T antigen gene using a retrovirus based on Chinese Holstein primary mammary epithelial cells (CMEC) cultured in vitro. An immortalized bovine mammary epithelial cell line surpassed the 50-passage mark and was designated the CMEC-H. The immortalized mammary epithelial cells grew in close contact with each other and exhibited the typical cobblestone morphology characteristic with obvious boundaries. The telomerase expression of CMEC-H has consistently demonstrated the presence of telomerase activity as an immortalized cell line, but the cell line never induced tumor formation in nude mice. CMEC-H expressed epithelial (cytokeratins CK7, CK8, CK18, and CK19), mesenchymal (vimentin), and stem/progenitor (CD44 and p63) cell markers. The induced expression of milk proteins, αS1 -casein, ß-casein, κ-casein, and butyrophilin, indicated that CMEC-H maintained the synthesis function of the mammary epithelial cells. The established immortalized bovine mammary epithelial cell line CMEC-H is capable of self-renewal and differentiation and can serve as a valuable reagent for studying the physiological mechanism of the mammary gland.

Feeding rumen-protected gamma-aminobutyric acid enhances the immune response and antioxidant status of heat-stressed lactating dairy cows.

This experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of rumen-protected gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) on immune function and antioxidant status in heat-stressed dairy cows. Sixty Holstein dairy cows were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 treatments according to a completely randomized block design. The treatments consisted of 0 (control), 40, 80, or 120mg of GABA/kg DM from rumen-protected GABA. The trial lasted 10 weeks. The average temperature-humidity indices at 0700, 1400 and 2200h were 78.4, 80.2 and 78.7, respectively. Rectal temperatures decreased linearly at 0700, 1400, and 2200h with increasing GABA. As the GABA increased, the immunoglobulin (Ig) A and IgG contents and the proportions of CD4(+) and CD8(+) T lymphocytes increased linearly (P<0.05), whereas concentrations of interleukin (IL)-2, IL-4, IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) decreased linearly (P<0.05). The activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione-peroxidase (GSH-PX) and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) increased linearly (P<0.05), whereas malondialdehyde (MDA) content decreased linearly (P<0.05) with increasing GABA. These results indicate that rumen-protected GABA supplementation to heat-stressed dairy cows can improve their immune function and antioxidant activity.

Exploring the Molecular Basis for Binding of Inhibitors by Threonyl-tRNA Synthetase from Brucella abortus: A Virtual Screening Study.

Targeting threonyl-tRNA synthetase (ThrRS) of Brucella abortus is a promising approach to developing small-molecule drugs against bovine brucellosis. Using the BLASTp algorithm, we identified ThrRS from Escherichia coli (EThrRS, PDB ID 1QF6), which is 51% identical to ThrRS from Brucella abortus (BaThrRS) at the amino acid sequence level. EThrRS was used as the template to construct a BaThrRS homology model which was optimized using molecular dynamics simulations. To determine the residues important for substrate ATP binding, we identified the ATP-binding regions of BaThrRS, docked ATP to the protein, and identified the residues whose side chains surrounded bound ATP. We then used the binding site of ATP to virtually screen for BaThrRS inhibitors and got seven leads. We further characterized the BaThrRS-binding site of the compound with the highest predicted inhibitory activity. Our results should facilitate future experimental effects to find novel drugs for use against bovine brucellosis.

New Primers Targeting Full-Length Ciliate 18S rRNA Genes and Evaluation of Dietary Effect on Rumen Ciliate Diversity in Dairy Cows.

Analysis of the full-length 18S rRNA gene sequences of rumen ciliates is more reliable for taxonomical classification and diversity assessment than the analysis of partial hypervariable regions only. The objective of this study was to develop new oligonucleotide primers targeting the full-length 18S rRNA genes of rumen ciliates, and to evaluate the effect of different sources of dietary fiber (corn stover or a mixture of alfalfa hay and corn silage) and protein (mixed rapeseed, cottonseed, and/or soybean meals) on rumen ciliate diversity in dairy cows. Primers were designed based on a total of 137 previously reported ciliate 18S rRNA gene sequences. The 3'-terminal sequences of the newly designed primers, P.1747r_2, P.324f, and P.1651r, demonstrated >99% base coverage. Primer pair D (P.324f and P.1747r_2) was selected for the cloning and sequencing of ciliate 18S rRNA genes because it produced a 1423-bp amplicon, and did not amply the sequences of other eukaryotic species, such as yeast. The optimal species-level cutoff value for distinguishing between the operational taxonomic units of different ciliate species was 0.015. The phylogenetic analysis of full-length ciliate 18S rRNA gene sequences showed that distinct ciliate profiles were induced by the different sources of dietary fiber and protein. Dasytricha and Entodinium were the predominant genera in the ruminal fluid of dairy cattle, and Dasytricha was significantly more abundant in cows fed with corn stover than in cows fed with alfalfa hay and corn silage.