Regulation of Human Hydrolases and Its Implications in Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics.

Hydrolases represent an essential class of enzymes indispensable for the metabolism of various clinically essential medications. Individuals exhibit marked differences in the expression and activation of hydrolases, resulting in significant variability in the pharmacokinetics (PK) and pharmacodynamics (PD) of drugs metabolized by these enzymes. The regulation of hydrolase expression and activity involves both genetic polymorphisms and nongenetic factors. This review examines the current understanding of genetic and nongenetic regulators of six clinically significant hydrolases, including carboxylesterase (CES)-1 CES2, arylacetamide deacetylase (AADAC), paraoxonase (PON)-1 PON3, and cathepsin A (CTSA). We explore genetic variants linked to the expression and activity of the hydrolases and their effects on the PK and PD of their substrate drugs. Regarding nongenetic regulators, we focus on the inhibitors and inducers of these enzymes. Additionally, we examine the developmental expression patterns and gender differences in the hydrolases when pertinent information was available. Many genetic and nongenetic regulators were found to be associated with the expression and activity of the hydrolases and PK and PD. However, hydrolases remain generally understudied compared with other drug-metabolizing enzymes, such as cytochrome P450s. The clinical significance of genetic and nongenetic regulators has not yet been firmly established for the majority of hydrolases. Comprehending the mechanisms that underpin the regulation of these enzymes holds the potential to refine therapeutic regimens, thereby enhancing the efficacy and safety of drugs metabolized by the hydrolases. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Hydrolases play a crucial role in the metabolism of numerous clinically important medications. Genetic polymorphisms and nongenetic regulators can affect hydrolases' expression and activity, consequently influencing the exposure and clinical outcomes of hydrolase substrate drugs. A comprehensive understanding of hydrolase regulation can refine therapeutic regimens, ultimately enhancing the efficacy and safety of drugs metabolized by the enzymes.

Novel Independent Trans- and Cis-Genetic Variants Associated with CYP2D6 Expression and Activity in Human Livers.

Cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) is a critical hepatic drug-metabolizing enzyme in humans, responsible for metabolizing approximately 20%-25% of commonly used medications such as codeine, desipramine, fluvoxamine, paroxetine, and tamoxifen. The CYP2D6 gene is highly polymorphic, resulting in substantial interindividual variability in its catalytic function and the pharmacokinetics and therapeutic outcomes of its substrate drugs. Although many functional CYP2D6 variants have been discovered and validated, a significant portion of the variability in the expression and activity of CYP2D6 remains unexplained. In this study, we performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) to identify novel variants associated with CYP2D6 protein expression in individual human livers, followed by a conditional analysis to control for the effect of functional CYP2D6 star alleles. We also examined their impact on hepatic CYP2D6 activity. Genotyping on a genome-wide scale was achieved using the Illumina Multi-Ethnic Genotyping Array (MEGA). A data-independent acquisition (DIA)-based proteomics method was used to quantify CYP2D6 protein concentrations. CYP2D6 activity was determined by measuring the dextromethorphan O-demethylation in individual human liver s9 fractions. The GWAS identified 44 single nuclear polymorphisms (SNPs) that are significantly associated with CYP2D6 protein expressions with a P value threshold of 5.0 × 10-7 After the conditional analysis, five SNPs, including the cis-variants rs1807493 and rs1062753 and the trans-variants rs4073010, rs729559, and rs80274432, emerged as independent variants significantly correlated with hepatic CYP2D6 protein expressions. Notably, four of these SNPs, except for rs80274432, also exhibited a significant association with CYP2D6 activities in human livers, suggesting their potential as novel and independent cis- and trans-variants regulating CYP2D6. SIGNIFICANT STATEMENT: Using individual human livers, we identified four novel cis- and trans-pQTLs/aQTLs (protein quantitative trait loci/activity quantitative trait loci) of Cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) that are independent from known functional CYP2D6 star alleles. This study connects the CYP2D6 gene expression and activity, enhancing our understanding of the genetic variants associated with CYP2D6 protein expression and activity, potentially advancing our insight into the interindividual variability in CYP2D6 substrate medication response.

Identification of regulatory variants of carboxylesterase 1 (CES1): A proof-of-concept study for the application of the Allele-Specific Protein Expression (ASPE) assay in identifying cis-acting regulatory genetic polymorphisms.

It is challenging to study regulatory genetic variants as gene expression is affected by both genetic polymorphisms and non-genetic regulators. The mRNA allele-specific expression (ASE) assay has been increasingly used for the study of cis-acting regulatory variants because cis-acting variants affect gene expression in an allele-specific manner. However, poor correlations between mRNA and protein expressions were observed for many genes, highlighting the importance of studying gene expression regulation at the protein level. In the present study, we conducted a proof-of-concept study to utilize a recently developed allele-specific protein expression (ASPE) assay to identify the cis-acting regulatory variants of CES1 using a large set of human liver samples. The CES1 gene encodes for carboxylesterase 1 (CES1), the most abundant hepatic hydrolase in humans. Two cis-acting regulatory variants were found to be significantly associated with CES1 ASPE, CES1 protein expression, and its catalytic activity on enalapril hydrolysis in human livers. Compared to conventional gene expression-based approaches, ASPE demonstrated an improved statistical power to detect regulatory variants with small effect sizes since allelic protein expression ratios are less prone to the influence of non-genetic regulators (e.g., diseases and inducers). This study suggests that the ASPE approach is a powerful tool for identifying cis-regulatory variants.

Genome-Wide Association Study for the Genetic Determinants of Thiopurine Methyltransferase Protein Expression in Human Livers and Racial Differences.

INTRODUCTION: Polymorphisms in the Thiopurine S-Methyltransferase (TPMT) gene are associated with decreased TPMT activity, but little is known about their impact on TPMT protein expression in the liver. This project is to conduct a genome-wide association study (GWAS) to identify single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with altered TPMT protein expression in human livers and to determine if demographics affect hepatic TPMT protein expression. METHODS: Human liver samples (n = 287) were genotyped using a whole genome genotyping panel and quantified for TPMT protein expression using a Data-Independent Acquisition proteomics approach. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: Thirty-one SNPs were found to be associated with differential expression of TPMT protein in the human livers. Subsequent analysis, conditioning on rs1142345, a SNP associated with the TPMT*3A and TPMT*3C alleles, showed no additional independent signals. Mean TPMT expression is significantly higher in wildtype donors compared to those carrying the known TPMT alleles, including TPMT*3A, TPMT*3C, and TPMT*24 (0.107 ± 0.028 vs. 0.052 ± 0.014 pmol/mg total protein, P = 2.2 × 10-16). After removing samples carrying the known TPMT variants, European ancestry donors exhibited significantly higher expression than African ancestry donors (0.109 ± 0.026 vs. 0.090 ± 0.041 pmol/mg total protein, P = 0.020). CONCLUSION: The GWAS identified 31 SNPs associated with TPMT protein expression in human livers. Hepatic TPMT protein expression was significantly lower in subjects carrying the TPMT*3A, TPMT*3C, and TPMT*24 alleles compared to non-carriers. European ancestry was associated with significantly higher hepatic TPMT protein expression than African ancestry, independent of known TPMT variants.

Contributions of Cathepsin A and Carboxylesterase 1 to the Hydrolysis of Tenofovir Alafenamide in the Human Liver, and the Effect of CES1 Genetic Variation on Tenofovir Alafenamide Hydrolysis.

The prodrug tenofovir alafenamide (TAF) is a first-line antiviral agent for the treatment of chronic hepatitis B infection. TAF activation involves multiple steps, and the first step is an ester hydrolysis reaction catalyzed by hydrolases. This study was to determine the contributions of carboxylesterase 1 (CES1) and cathepsin A (CatA) to TAF hydrolysis in the human liver. Our in vitro incubation studies showed that both CatA and CES1 catalyzed TAF hydrolysis in a pH-dependent manner. At their physiologic pH environment, the activity of CatA (pH 5.2) was approximately 1,000-fold higher than that of CES1 (pH 7.2). Given that the hepatic protein expression of CatA was approximately 200-fold lower than that of CES1, the contribution of CatA to TAF hydrolysis in the human liver was estimated to be much greater than that of CES1, which is contrary to the previous perception that CES1 is the primary hepatic enzyme hydrolyzing TAF. The findings were further supported by a TAF incubation study with the CatA inhibitor telaprevir and the CES1 inhibitor bis-(p-nitrophenyl) phosphate. Moreover, an in vitro study revealed that the CES1 variant G143E (rs71647871) is a loss-of-function variant for CES1-mediated TAF hydrolysis. In summary, our results suggest that CatA may play a more important role in the hepatic activation of TAF than CES1. Additionally, TAF activation in the liver could be affected by CES1 genetic variation, but the magnitude of impact appears to be limited due to the major contribution of CatA to hepatic TAF activation. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Contrary to the general perception that carboxylesterase 1 (CES1) is the major enzyme responsible for tenofovir alafenamide (TAF) hydrolysis in the human liver, the present study demonstrated that cathepsin A may play a more significant role in TAF hepatic hydrolysis. Furthermore, the CES1 variant G143E (rs71647871) was found to be a loss-of-function variant for CES1-mediated TAF hydrolysis.

Transcriptional Regulation of Carboxylesterase 1 in Human Liver: Role of the Nuclear Receptor Subfamily 1 Group H Member 3 and Its Splice Isoforms.

Carboxylesterase 1 (CES1) is the predominant carboxylesterase in the human liver, involved in metabolism of both xenobiotics and endogenous substrates. Genetic or epigenetic factors that alter CES1 activity or expression are associated with changes in drug response, lipid, and glucose homeostasis. However, the transcriptional regulation of CES1 in the human liver remains uncertain. By applying both the random forest and Sobol's Sensitivity Indices (SSI) to analyze existing liver RNA expression microarray data (GSE9588), we identified nuclear receptor subfamily 1 group H member 3 (NR1H3) liver X receptor (LXR)α as a key factor regulating constitutive CES1 expression. This model prediction was validated using small interfering RNA (siRNA) knockdown and CRISPR-mediated transcriptional activation of NR1H3 in Huh7 and HepG2 cells. We found that NR1H3's activation of CES1 is splice isoform-specific, namely that increased expression of the NR1H3-211 isoform increased CES1 expression whereas NR1H3-201 did not. Also, in human liver samples, expression of NR1H3-211 and CES1 are correlated, whereas NR1H3-201 and CES1 are not. This trend also occurs during differentiation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) to hepatocytes, where only expression of the NR1H3-211 isoform parallels expression of CES1 Moreover, we found that treatment with the NR1H3 agonist T0901317 in HepG2 cells had no effect on CES1 expression. Overall, our results demonstrate a key role of NR1H3 in maintaining the constitutive expression of CES1 in the human liver. Furthermore, our results support that the effect of NR1H3 is splice isoform-specific and appears to be ligand independent. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Despite the central role of carboxylesterase 1 (CES1) in metabolism of numerous medications, little is known about its transcriptional regulation. This study identifies nuclear receptor subfamily 1 group H member 3 as a key regulator of constitutive CES1 expression and therefore is a potential target for future studies to understand interperson variabilities in CES1 activity and drug metabolism.

Effects of Overexpression of Fibroblast Growth Factor 15/19 on Hepatic Drug Metabolizing Enzymes.

Fibroblast growth factors 15 (FGF15) and 19 (FGF19) are endocrine growth factors that play an important role in maintaining bile acid homeostasis. FGF15/19-based therapies are currently being tested in clinical trials for the treatment of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis and cholestatic liver diseases. To determine the physiologic impact of long-term elevations of FGF15/19, a transgenic mouse model with overexpression of Fgf15 (Fgf15 Tg) was used in the current study. The RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) analysis revealed elevations of the expression of several genes encoding phase I drug metabolizing enzymes (DMEs), including Cyp2b10 and Cyp3a11, in Fgf15 Tg mice. We found that the induction of several Cyp2b isoforms resulted in increased function of CYP2B in microsomal metabolism and pharmacokinetics studies. Because the CYP2B family is known to be induced by constitutive androstane receptor (CAR), to determine the role of CAR in the observed inductions, we crossed Fgf15 Tg mice with CAR knockout mice and found that CAR played a minor role in the observed alterations in DME expression. Interestingly, we found that the overexpression of Fgf15 in male mice resulted in a phenotypical switch from the male hepatic expression pattern of DMEs to that of female mice. Differences in secretion of growth hormone (GH) between male and female mice are known to drive sexually dimorphic, STAT5b-dependent expression patterns of hepatic genes. We found that male Fgf15 Tg mice presented with many features similar to GH deficiency, including lowered body length and weight, Igf-1 and Igfals expression, and STAT5 signaling. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The overexpression of Fgf15 in mice causes an alteration in DMEs at the mRNA, protein, and functional levels, which is not entirely due to CAR activation but associated with lower GH signaling.

Effect of CES1 genetic variation on enalapril steady-state pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in healthy subjects.

AIMS: Enalapril is a prodrug and needs to be activated by carboxylesterase 1 (CES1). A previous in vitro study demonstrated the CES1 genetic variant, G143E (rs71647871), significantly impaired enalapril activation. Two previous clinical studies examined the impact of G143E on single-dose enalapril PK (10 mg); however, the results were inconclusive. A prospective, multi-dose, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics (PK/PD) study was conducted to determine the impact of the CES1 G143E variant on enalapril steady-state PK and PD in healthy volunteers. METHODS: Study participants were stratified to G143E non-carriers (n = 15) and G143E carriers (n = 6). All the carriers were G143E heterozygotes. Study subjects received enalapril 10 mg daily for seven consecutive days prior to a 72 hour PK/PD study. Plasma concentrations of enalapril and its active metabolite enalaprilat were quantified by an established liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method. RESULTS: The CES1 G143E carriers had 30.9% lower enalaprilat Cmax (P = 0.03) compared to the non-carriers (38.01 vs. 55.01 ng/mL). The carrier group had 27.5% lower AUC0-∞ (P = 0.02) of plasma enalaprilat compared to the non-carriers (374.29 vs. 515.91 ng*h/mL). The carriers also had a 32.3% lower enalaprilat-to-enalapril AUC0-∞ ratio (P = 0.003) relative to the non-carriers. The average maximum reduction of systolic blood pressure in the non-carrier group was approximately 12.4% at the end of the study compared to the baseline (P = 0.001). No statistically significant blood pressure reduction was observed in the G143E carriers. CONCLUSIONS: The CES1 loss-of-function G143E variant significantly impaired enalapril activation and its systolic blood pressure-lowering effect in healthy volunteers.

Data-independent acquisition (DIA): An emerging proteomics technology for analysis of drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporters.

Data-independent acquisition (DIA) proteomics is a recently-developed global mass spectrometry (MS)-based proteomics strategy. In a DIA method, precursor ions are isolated into pre-defined isolation windows and fragmented; all fragmented ions in each window are then analyzed by a high-resolution mass spectrometer. DIA proteomics analysis is characterized by a broad protein coverage, high reproducibility, and accuracy, and its combination with advances in other techniques such as sample preparation and computational data analysis could lead to further improvements in assay performances. DIA technology has been increasingly utilized in various proteomics studies, including quantifying drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporters. Quantitative proteomics study of drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporters could lead to a better understanding of pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics and facilitate drug development. This review summarizes the application of DIA technology in proteomic analysis of drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporters.

Genome-wide pQTL analysis of protein expression regulatory networks in the human liver.

BACKGROUND: Previous expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) studies have identified thousands of genetic variants to be associated with gene expression at the mRNA level in the human liver. However, protein expression often correlates poorly with mRNA levels. Thus, protein quantitative trait loci (pQTL) study is required to identify genetic variants that regulate protein expression in human livers. RESULTS: We conducted a genome-wide pQTL study in 287 normal human liver samples and identified 900 local pQTL variants and 4026 distant pQTL variants. We further discovered 53 genome hotspots of pQTL variants. Transcriptional region mapping analysis showed that 1133 pQTL variants are in transcriptional regulatory regions. Genomic region enrichment analysis of the identified pQTL variants revealed 804 potential regulatory interactions among 595 predicted regulators (e.g., non-coding RNAs) and 394 proteins. Moreover, pQTL variants and trait-variant integration analysis implied several novel mechanisms underlying the relationships between protein expression and liver diseases, such as alcohol dependence. Notably, over 2000 of the identified pQTL variants have not been reported in previous eQTL studies, suggesting extensive involvement of genetic polymorphisms in post-transcriptional regulation of protein expression in human livers. CONCLUSIONS: We have partially established protein expression regulation networks in human livers and generated a wealth of pQTL data that could serve as a valuable resource for the scientific community.

FRACPRED-2D-PRM: A Fraction Prediction Algorithm-Assisted 2D Liquid Chromatography-Based Parallel Reaction Monitoring-Mass Spectrometry Approach for Measuring Low-Abundance Proteins in Human Plasma.

Multidimensional fractionation-based enrichment methods improve the sensitivity of proteomic analysis for low-abundance proteins. However, a major limitation of conventional multidimensional proteomics is the extensive labor and instrument time required for analyzing many fractions obtained from the first dimension separation. Here, a fraction prediction algorithm-assisted 2D LC-based parallel reaction monitoring-mass spectrometry (FRACPRED-2D-PRM) approach for measuring low-abundance proteins in human plasma is presented. Plasma digests are separated by the first dimension high-pH RP-LC with data-dependent acquisition (DDA). The FRACPRED algorithm is then usedto predict the retention times of undetectable target peptides according to those of other abundant plasma peptides during the first dimension separation. Fractions predicted to contain target peptides are analyzed by the second dimension low-pH nano RP-LC PRM. The accuracy and robustness of fraction prediction with the FRACPRED algorithm are demonstrated by measuring two low-abundance proteins, aldolase B and carboxylesterase 1, in human plasma. The FRACPRED-2D-PRM proteomics approach demonstrates markedly improved efficiency and sensitivity over conventional 2D-LC proteomics assays. It is expected that this approach will be widely used in the study of low-abundance proteins in plasma and other complex biological samples.

Carboxylesterase 1 and Precision Pharmacotherapy: Pharmacogenetics and Nongenetic Regulators.

Carboxylesterase (CES) 1 is the most abundant drug-metabolizing enzyme in human livers, comprising approximately 1% of the entire liver proteome. CES1 is responsible for 80%-95% of total hydrolytic activity in the liver and plays a crucial role in the metabolism of a wide range of drugs (especially ester-prodrugs), pesticides, environmental pollutants, and endogenous compounds. Expression and activity of CES1 vary markedly among individuals, which is a major contributing factor to interindividual variability in the pharmacokinetics (PK) and pharmacodynamics (PD) of drugs metabolized by CES1. Both genetic and nongenetic factors contribute to CES1 variability. Here, we discuss genetic polymorphisms, including single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and copy number variants and nongenetic contributors, such as developmental status, genders, and drug-drug interactions, that could influence CES1 functionality and the PK and PD of CES1 substrates. Currently, the loss-of-function SNP G143E (rs71647871) is the only clinically significant CES1 variant identified to date, and alcohol is the only potent CES1 inhibitor that could alter the therapeutic outcomes of CES1 substrate medications. However, G143E and alcohol can only explain a small portion of the interindividual variability in the CES1 function. A better understanding of the regulation of CES1 expression and activity and identification of biomarkers for CES1 function in vivo could lead to the development of a precision pharmacotherapy strategy to improve the efficacy and safety of many CES1 substrate drugs. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The clinical relevance of CES1 has been well demonstrated in various clinical trials. Genetic and nongenetic regulators can affect CES1 expression and activity, resulting in the alteration of the metabolism and clinical outcome of CES1 substrate drugs, such as methylphenidate and clopidogrel. Predicting the hepatic CES1 function can provide clinical guidance to optimize pharmacotherapy of numerous medications metabolized by CES1.

Comparative Proteomics Analysis of Human Liver Microsomes and S9 Fractions.

Human liver microsomes (HLM) and human liver S9 fractions (HLS9) are commonly used to study drug metabolism in vitro. However, a quantitative comparison of HLM and HLS9 proteomes is lacking, resulting in the arbitrary selection of one hepatic preparation over another and in difficulties with data interpretation. In this study, we applied a label-free global absolute quantitative proteomics method to the analysis of HLS9 and the corresponding HLM prepared from 102 individual human livers. A total of 3137 proteins were absolutely quantified, and 3087 of those were determined in both HLM and HLS9. Protein concentrations were highly correlated between the two hepatic preparations (R = 0.87, P < 0.0001). We reported the concentrations of 98 drug-metabolizing enzymes (DMEs) and 51 transporters, and demonstrated significant differences between their abundances in HLM and HLS9. We also revealed the protein-protein correlations among these DMEs and transporters and the sex effect on the HLM and HLS9 proteomes. Additionally, HLM and HLS9 displayed distinct expression patterns for protein markers of cytosol and various cellular organelles. Moreover, we evaluated the interindividual variability of three housekeeping proteins, and identified five proteins with low variation across individuals that have the potential to serve as new internal controls for western blot experiments. In summary, these results will lead to better understanding of data obtained from HLM and HLS9 and assist in in vitro-in vivo extrapolations. Knowing the differences between HLM and HLS9 also allows us to make better-informed decisions when choosing between these two hepatic preparations for in vitro drug metabolism studies. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This investigation revealed significant differences in protein concentrations of drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporters between human liver microsomes and S9 fractions. We also determined the protein-protein correlations among the drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporters and the sex effect on the proteomes of these two hepatic preparations. The results will help interpret data obtained from these two preparations and allow us to make more informed decisions when choosing between human liver microsomes and S9 fractions for in vitro drug metabolism studies.

Acetaminophen-Induced Liver Injury Alters Expression and Activities of Cytochrome P450 Enzymes in an Age-Dependent Manner in Mouse Liver.

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is a global medical problem. The risk of DILI is often related to expression and activities of drug-metabolizing enzymes, especially cytochrome P450s (P450s). However, changes on expression and activities of P450s after DILI have not been determined. The aim of this study is to fill this knowledge gap. Acetaminophen (APAP) was used as a model drug to induce DILI in C57BL/6J mice at different ages of days 10 (infant), 22 (child), and 60 (adult). DILI was assessed by levels of alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase in plasma with a confirmation by H&E staining on liver tissue sections. The expression of selected P450s at mRNA and protein levels was measured by real-time polymerase chain reaction and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, respectively. The activities of these P450s were determined by the formation of metabolites from probe drugs for each P450 using ultraperformance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry. DILI was induced at mild to severe levels in a dose-dependent manner in 200, 300, and 400 mg/kg APAP-treated groups at child and adult ages, but not at the infant age. Significantly decreased expression at mRNA and protein levels as well as enzymatic activities of CYP2E1, 3A11, 1A2, and 2C29 were found at child and adult ages. Adult male mice were more susceptible to APAP-induced liver injury than female mice with more decreased expression of P450s. These results suggest that altered levels of P450s in livers severely injured by drugs may affect the therapeutic efficacy of drugs, which are metabolized by P450s, more particularly for males. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The current study in an animal model demonstrates that acetaminophen-induced liver injury results in decreased expression and enzyme activities of several examined drug-metabolizing cytochrome P450s (P450s). The extent of such decreases is correlated to the degree of liver injury severity. The generated data may be translated to human health for patients who have drug-induced liver injury with decreased capability to metabolize drugs by certain P450s.

Chemoproteomic Identification of Serine Hydrolase RBBP9 as a Valacyclovir-Activating Enzyme.

Prodrug discovery and development in the pharmaceutical industry have been hampered by a lack of knowledge of prodrug activation pathways. Such knowledge would minimize the risks of prodrug failure by enabling proper selection of preclinical animal models, prediction of pharmacogenomic variability, and identification of drug-drug interactions. Technologies for annotation of activating enzymes have not kept pace with the growing need. Activity-based protein profiling (ABPP) has matured considerably in recent decades, leading to widespread use in the pharmaceutical industry. Here, we report the extension of competitive ABPP (cABPP) to prodrug-activating enzyme identification in stable isotope-labeled cell lysates using a modified fluorophosphonate probe. Focusing on the antiviral ester prodrug valacyclovir (VACV), we identified serine hydrolase RBBP9 as an activating enzyme in Caco-2 cells via shotgun proteomics, validating the activity via the selective inhibitor emetine (EME). Kinetic characterization of RBBP9 revealed a catalytic efficiency (kcat·KM-1 = 104 mM-1·s-1) comparable to that of BPHL, the only known VACV-activating enzyme prior to this work. EME incubation in wild-type and Bphl-knockout jejunum and liver lysates demonstrated the near-exclusivity of VACV activation by RBBP9 in the intestine. Additionally, these studies showed that RBBP9 and BPHL are the two major and coequal VACV-activating enzymes in the liver. Single-pass intestinal perfusions of VACV ± EME in mice showed EME coperfusion significantly inhibited the intestinal activation of VACV, implying the in vivo relevance of RBBP9-mediated VACV activation. We envision that others might use the cABPP approach in the future for global, rapid, and efficient discovery of prodrug-activating enzymes.

Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)-Based Proteomics of Drug-Metabolizing Enzymes and Transporters.

Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)-based proteomics is a powerful tool for identifying and quantifying proteins in biological samples, outperforming conventional antibody-based methods in many aspects. LC-MS/MS-based proteomics studies have revealed the protein abundances of many drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporters (DMETs) in tissues relevant to drug metabolism and disposition. Previous studies have consistently demonstrated marked interindividual variability in DMET protein expression, suggesting that varied DMET function is an important contributing factor for interindividual variability in pharmacokinetics (PK) and pharmacodynamics (PD) of medications. Moreover, differential DMET expression profiles were observed across different species and in vitro models. Therefore, caution must be exercised when extrapolating animal and in vitro DMET proteomics findings to humans. In recent years, DMET proteomics has been increasingly utilized for the development of physiologically based pharmacokinetic models, and DMET proteins have also been proposed as biomarkers for prediction of the PK and PD of the corresponding substrate drugs. In sum, despite the existence of many challenges in the analytical technology and data analysis methods of LC-MS/MS-based proteomics, DMET proteomics holds great potential to advance our understanding of PK behavior at the individual level and to optimize treatment regimens via the DMET protein biomarker-guided precision pharmacotherapy.

Functional Study of Carboxylesterase 1 Protein Isoforms.

Carboxylesterase 1 (CES1) is a primary human hepatic hydrolase involved in hydrolytic biotransformation of numerous medications. Considerable interindividual variability in CES1 expression and activity has been consistently reported. Four isoforms of the CES1 protein are produced by alternative splicing (AS). In the current study, the activity and expression of each CES1 isoform are examined using transfected cell lines, and CES1 isoform composition and its impact on CES1 activity in human livers are determined. In transfected cells, isoforms 3 and 4 show mRNA and protein expressions comparable to isoforms 1 and 2, but have significantly impaired activity when hydrolyzing enalapril and clopidogrel. In individual human liver samples, isoforms 1 and 2 are the major forms, contributing 73-90% of the total CES1 protein expression. In addition, the protein expression ratios of isoforms 1 and 2 to isoforms 3 and 4 are positively associated with CES1 activity in the liver, suggesting that CES1 isoform composition is a factor contributing to the variability in hepatic CES1 function. Further investigations of the regulation of CES1 AS would improve the understanding of CES1 variability and help develop a strategy to optimize the pharmacotherapy of many CES1 substrate medications.

Response to the Comments on "Determining Allele-Specific Protein Expression (ASPE) Using a Novel Quantitative Concatamer Proteomics Method".

Russell and colleagues deserve credit for being the first to use a QconCAT standard to simultaneously quantify both the wild-type and mutant peptides of a protein (i.e., CYP2B6) ( J. Proteome Res. 2013, 12 (12), 5934-5942. DOI: 10.1021/pr400279u). However, the rationale of their study was entirely different from ours ( J. Proteome Res. 2018, 17 (10), 3606-3612. DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.8b00620). Their study focused on the quantification of individual drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporters, whereas ours developed a targeted proteomics method to determine the allele-specific protein expression (ASPE) of a gene and advocated the use of the ASPE imbalance as the phenotype for identifying cis-regulatory genetic variants of the gene. More importantly, the digestion enzyme trypsin interacts with three to four amino acid residues around scissile bonds, and certain residues, such as negatively charged amino acids, can significantly affect the digestion efficiency. The QconCAT standard reported in our study differs from conventional QconCAT standards such as that used by Russell et al. in that at least 15 native flanking amino acids were included to ensure accurate measurement of ASPE ratios.

Potential Regulation of UGT2B10 and UGT2B7 by miR-485-5p in Human Liver.

The UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) family of enzymes is important in the metabolic elimination of a variety of endogenous compounds such as bile acids, steroids, and fat-soluble vitamins, as well as exogenous compounds including many pharmaceuticals. The UGT2B subfamily is a major family of UGT enzymes expressed in human liver. The identification of novel mechanisms including post-transcriptional regulation by microRNA (miRNA) contributes to interindividual variability in UGT2B expression and is a crucial component in predicting patient drug response. In the present study, a high-resolution liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method was employed to measure UGT2B protein levels in a panel of human liver microsomal samples (n = 62). Concurrent in silico analysis identified eight candidate miRNAs as potential regulators of UGT2B enzymes. Comparison of UGT2B protein expression and candidate miRNA levels from human liver samples demonstrated a significant inverse correlation between UGT2B10 and UGT2B15 and one of these candidate miRNAs, miR-485-5p. A near-significant correlation was also observed between UGT2B7 and miR-485-5p expression. In vitro analysis using luciferase-containing vectors suggested an interaction of miR-485-5p within the UGT2B10 3'-untranslated region (UTR), and significant reduction in luciferase activity was also observed for a luciferase vector containing the UGT2B7 3'-UTR; however, none was observed for the UBT2B15 3'-UTR. UGT2B10 and UGT2B7 activities were probed using nicotine and 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine, respectively, and significant decreases in glucuronidation activity were observed for both substrates in HuH-7 and Hep3B cells upon overexpression of miR-485-5p mimic. This is the first study demonstrating a regulatory role of miR-485-5p for multiple UGT2B enzymes. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The purpose of this study was to identify novel epigenetic miRNA regulators of the UGT2B drug-metabolizing enzymes in healthy human liver samples. Our results indicate that miRNA 485-5p is a novel regulator of UGT2B7 and UGT2B10, which play an important role in the metabolism of many commonly prescribed medications, carcinogens, and endogenous compounds. This study identified potential miRNA-UGT2B mRNA interactions using a novel proteomic approach, with in vitro experiments undertaken to validate these interactions.

Identification of two novel epitopes targeting glycoprotein E of pseudorabies virus using monoclonal antibodies.

Pseudorabies virus (PRV), the agent of pseudorabies, has raised considerable attention since 2011 due to the outbreak of emerging PRV variants in China. In the present study, we obtained two monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) known as 2E5 and 5C3 against the glycoprotein E (gE) of a PRV variant (JS-2012 strain). The two mAbs reacted with wild PRV but not the vaccine strain (gE-deleted virus). The 2E5 was located in 161RLRRE165, which was conserved in almost of all PRV strains, while 5C3 in 148EMGIGDY154 was different from almost of all genotype I PRV, in which the 149th amino acid is methionine (M) instead of arginine (R). The two epitopes peptides located in the hydrophilic region and reacted with positive sera against genotype II PRV (JS-2012), which suggests they were likely dominant B-cell epitopes. Furthermore, the mutant peptide 148ERGIGDY154 (genotype I) did not react with the mAb 5C3 or positive sera against genotype II PRV (JS-2012). In conclusion, both mAb 2E5 and 5C3 could be used to identify wild PRV strains from vaccine strains, and mAb 5C3 and the epitope peptide of 5C3 might be used for epidemiological investigation to distinguish genotype II from genotype I PRV.