Fluid intelligence and executive functioning more alike than different?

OBJECTIVE: Fluid intelligence (Gf) has been related to executive functioning (EF) in previous studies, and it is also known to be correlated with crystallized intelligence (Gc). The present study includes representative measures of Gf, Gc, and EF frequently used in clinical practice to examine this Gf-EF relation. It is hypothesised that the Gf-EF relation is higher than the Gc-EF relation, and that working memory in particular (as a measure of EF) shows a high contribution to this relation. METHOD: Confirmatory factor analysis was performed on a mixed neuropsychiatric and non-clinical sample consisting of 188 participants, using the Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Test, and three executive tasks of the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery, covering working memory, planning skills, and set shifting. RESULTS: The model fitted the data well [χ²(24)=35.25, p=0.07, RMSEA=0.050]. A very high correlation between Gf and EF was found (0.91), with working memory being the most profound indicator. A moderate to high correlation between Gc and EF was present. Current results are consistent with findings of a strong relation between Gf and working memory. CONCLUSION: Gf and EF are highly correlated. Gf dysfunction in neuropsychiatric patients warrants further EF examination and vice versa. It is discussed that results confirm the need to distinguish between specific versus general fluid/executive functioning, the latter being more involved when task complexity and novelty increase. This distinction can provide a more refined differential diagnosis and improve neuropsychiatric treatment indication.

Effect of Early Individualized Dietary Counseling on Weight Loss, Complications, and Length of Hospital Stay in Patients With Head and Neck Cancer: A Comparative Study.

Patients with head and neck cancer (HNC) are at risk for undernutrition. Dietary counseling during treatment has positive effects on nutritional status and quality of life, however, the effects of dietary counseling started before initiation of treatment are currently unknown. Therefore we assessed the effect of early individualized dietary counseling (DC) on weight loss, major complications, and length of hospital stay (LOS) in patients with HNC. Ninety-five newly diagnosed HNC patients with (risk of) undernutrition receiving DC were compared to 95 matched HNC patients receiving usual nutritional care (UC). Difference in weight change over time was analyzed by generalized estimating equations (GEE). Differences in complications and LOS were studied by Pearson chi-squared and student's t-tests. Weight change between diagnosis and end of treatment was -6.0 ± 6.9% (DC) and -5.4 ± 5.7% (UC; GEE: -0.4kg, 95% confidence interval: -1.2 to 0.5; P = 0.44). Less DC patients experienced overall postoperative complications (44%/70%, P = 0.04). No effect on major postoperative or (chemo)radiotherapy complications or LOS was found. This study showed a lower prevalence of overall postoperative complications in HNC patients receiving DC but could not demonstrate an effect on weight loss, other complications, and LOS.

No relations between executive functions and dimensional models of psychopathology or is time the missing link?

Impaired executive functions (EF) have been found within various mental disorders (e.g., attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, schizophrenia spectrum disorders) as described in DSM-5. However, although impaired EF has been observed within several categories of mental disorders, empirical research on direct relations between EF and broader dimension of psychopathology is still scarce. Therefore, in the current investigation we examined relations between three EF performance tasks and self-reported dimensions of psychopathology (i.e., the internalizing, externalizing, and thought disorder spectra) in a combined dataset of patients with a broad range of mental disorders (N = 440). Despite previously reported results that indicate impaired EF in several categories of mental disorders, in this study no direct relations were found between EF performance tasks and self-reported broader dimensions of psychopathology. These results indicate that relations between EF and psychopathology could be more complex and non-linear in nature. We evaluate the need for integration of EF and dimensional models of psychopathology and reflect on EF as a possible transdiagnostic factor of psychopathology.

Poor nutritional status, risk of sarcopenia and nutrition related complaints are prevalent in COVID-19 patients during and after hospital admission.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Patients with COVID-19 infection presents with a broad clinical spectrum of symptoms and complications. As a consequence nutritional requirements are not met, resulting in weight- and muscle loss, and malnutrition. The aim of the present study is to delineate nutritional complaints, the (course of the) nutritional status and risk of sarcopenia of COVID-19 patients, during hospitalisation and after discharge. METHODS: In this prospective observational study in 407 hospital admitted COVID-19 patients in four university and peripheral hospitals, data were collected during dietetic consultations. Presence of nutrition related complaints (decreased appetite, loss of smell, changed taste, loss of taste, chewing and swallowing problems, nausea, vomiting, feeling of being full, stool frequency and consistency, gastric retention, need for help with food intake due to weakness and shortness of breath and nutritional status (weight loss, BMI, risk of sarcopenia with SARC-F ≥4 points) before, during hospital stay and after discharge were, where possible, collected. RESULTS: Included patients were most men (69%), median age of 64.8 ± 12.4 years, 60% were admitted to ICU at any time point during hospitalisation with a median LOS of 15 days and an in-hospital mortality rate of 21%. The most commonly reported complaints were: decreased appetite (58%), feeling of being full (49%) and shortness of breath (43%). One in three patients experienced changed taste, loss of taste and/or loss of smell. Prior to hospital admission, 67% of the patients was overweight (BMI >25 kg/m2), 35% of the patients was characterised as malnourished, mainly caused by considerable weight loss. Serious acute weight loss (>5 kg) was showed in 22% of the patents during the hospital stay; most of these patients (85%) were admitted to the ICU at any point in time. A high risk of sarcopenia (SARC-F ≥ 4 points) was scored in 73% of the patients during hospital admission. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, one in five hospital admitted COVID-19 patients suffered from serious acute weight loss and 73% had a high risk of sarcopenia. Moreover, almost all patients had one or more nutritional complaints. Of these complaints, decreased appetite, feeling of being full, shortness of breath and changed taste and loss of taste were the most predominant nutrition related complaints. These symptoms have serious repercussions on nutritional status. Although nutritional complaints persisted a long time after discharge, only a small group of patients received dietetic treatment after hospital discharge in recovery phase. Clinicians should consider the risks of acute malnutrition and sarcopenia in COVID-19 patients and investigate multidisciplinary treatment including dietetics during hospital stay and after discharge.

The relationship between executive dysfunction and neuropsychiatric symptoms in patients with Korsakoff's syndrome.

Objective: Patients with Korsakoff's syndrome (KS) show executive dysfunction and neuropsychiatric symptoms. This study investigates whether specific executive subcomponents (shifting, updating, and inhibition) predict variance in neuropsychiatric symptoms. We hypothesized that shifting deficits, in particular, are associated with neuropsychiatric symptoms.Method: Forty-seven patients participated (mean age 61.5; 11 women). Executive function (EF) was measured using six component-specific tasks. Neuropsychiatric symptoms were measured with the Neuropsychiatric Inventory - Questionnaire (NPI-Q). General cognitive functioning was assessed with the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA). First, factor analysis was conducted to examine shared variance across the EF tasks. Subsequently, a regression analysis was performed with the EF factors and the MoCA as predictors and the NPI-Q as the dependent variable. It was also investigated whether an interaction effect between the EF factors and the MoCA was present.Results: The prevalence of neuropsychiatric symptoms was high (85.7% of the KS patients showed at least one symptom). A two-factor model was extracted with a shifting-specific factor and a combined updating/inhibition factor. The overall regression model was not significant, and no interaction was found between the EF factors and general cognitive functioning. However, a significant relationship between general cognitive functioning and neuropsychiatric symptoms (r = -.43; p <.01) was detected.Conclusions: Results point at an association between neuropsychiatric symptoms and general cognitive functioning. Possibly, diminished cognitive differentiation in these patients with severe cognitive dysfunction accounts for the absence of a significant association between EF and neuropsychiatric symptoms. While the results should be interpreted with caution due to a limited sample size, the found association highlights the need to further unravel the underlying cognitive mechanisms of neuropsychiatric symptoms in patients with KS.

Predictive Value of Traditional Measures of Executive Function on Broad Abilities of the Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory of Cognitive Abilities.

The neuropsychological construct of executive functions (EFs), and the psychometric Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory of cognitive abilities are both approaches that attempt to describe cognitive functioning. The coherence between EF and CHC abilities has been mainly studied using factor-analytical techniques. Through multivariate regression analysis, the current study now assesses the integration of these latent constructs in clinical assessment. The predictive power of six widely used executive tasks on five CHC measures (crystallized and fluid intelligence, visual processing, short-term memory, and processing speed) is examined. Results indicate that executive tasks-except for the Stroop and the Tower of London-predict overall performance on the intelligence tests. Differentiation in predicting performance between the CHC abilities is limited, due to a high shared variance between these abilities. It is concluded that executive processes such as planning and inhibition have a unique variance that is not well-represented in intelligence tests. Implications for the use of EF tests and operationalization of CHC measures in clinical practice are discussed.

Representation of the Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory of Cognitive Abilities in the Factor Structure of the Dutch-Language Version of the WAIS-IV.

The Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory of cognitive abilities has been guiding in the revision of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth edition (WAIS-IV). Especially the measurement of fluid reasoning (Gf) is improved. A total of five CHC abilities are included in the WAIS-IV subtests. Using confirmatory factor analysis, a five-factor model based on these CHC abilities is evaluated and compared with the four index scores in the Dutch-language version of the WAIS-IV. Both models demonstrate moderate fit, preference is given to the five-factor CHC model both on statistical and theoretical grounds. Evaluation of the WAIS-IV according to CHC terminology enhances uniformity, and can be important when interpreting possible sources of index discrepancies. To optimally assemblage CHC and WAIS-IV, more knowledge of the interaction of abilities is needed. This can be done by incorporating intelligence testing in neuropsychological assessment. Using this functional approach contributes to a better understanding of an individual's cognitive profile.

The Relation between Behavioral, Emotional and Cognitive Apathy and Everyday Executive Dysfunction in Alcoholic Korsakoff's Syndrome

ABSTRACT Background: Apathy is an important neuropsychiatric symptom in alcohol-related cognitive impairment in general, and Korsakoff's syndrome in specific. However, research in patients with Korsakoff's syndrome on the multifaceted nature of apathy is lacking. Objectives: Aim of the current study was to examine behavioral, cognitive and emotional apathy in alcoholic Korsakoff patients, also investigating the association with overall cognitive and executive dysfunction. Methods: We studied 43 patients with Korsakoff's syndrome (mean age 60.9, SD=6.5, range 38-70) using the Apathy Evaluation Scale - Informant Version (AES-I) and also administered the Montreal Cognitive Assessment and the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function - Adult Version (BRIEF-A) as a measure of daily executive problems. Results: In our sample, 76% of the Korsakoff patients were classified as being apathetic. AES-I scores correlated with overall cognitive function and were related to observer-rated daily executive problems. Discussion: Apathy is highly prevalent in Korsakoff patients and related to overall cognitive dysfunction and everyday executive problems. Our results stress the need to further examine underlying mechanisms of apathy in Korsakoff patients and the need for interventions aimed at reducing apathy.

Decline of executive function in a clinical population: age, psychopathology, and test performance on the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB).

This study presents a cross-sectional examination of the age-related executive changes in a sample of adults with a history of psychiatric illness using the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery. A total of 406 patients, aged 18 to 72 years old, completed executive function tests of working memory, strategic planning, and set shifting. Using current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders-Fourth Edition criteria, patients were diagnosed with: (a) affective disorders (N = 153), (b) substance-related disorders (N = 112), (c) personality disorders (N = 82), or (d) pervasive developmental disorders (N = 59). Test performances were compared to those of 52 healthy adults. Similar rates of age-related executive decline were found for patients and healthy participants. However, as adults with a history of psychiatric illness started out with significantly lower baseline levels of executive functioning, they may require less time before reaching a critical threshold where functional deficits emerge. Limitations as well as implications for future research were discussed.