Predictors of developmental dyslexia in European orthographies with varying complexity.

BACKGROUND: The relationship between phoneme awareness, rapid automatized naming (RAN), verbal short-term/working memory (ST/WM) and diagnostic category is investigated in control and dyslexic children, and the extent to which this depends on orthographic complexity. METHODS: General cognitive, phonological and literacy skills were tested in 1,138 control and 1,114 dyslexic children speaking six different languages spanning a large range of orthographic complexity (Finnish, Hungarian, German, Dutch, French, English). RESULTS: Phoneme deletion and RAN were strong concurrent predictors of developmental dyslexia, while verbal ST/WM and general verbal abilities played a comparatively minor role. In logistic regression models, more participants were classified correctly when orthography was more complex. The impact of phoneme deletion and RAN-digits was stronger in complex than in less complex orthographies. CONCLUSIONS: Findings are largely consistent with the literature on predictors of dyslexia and literacy skills, while uniquely demonstrating how orthographic complexity exacerbates some symptoms of dyslexia.

The left occipitotemporal system in reading: disruption of focal fMRI connectivity to left inferior frontal and inferior parietal language areas in children with dyslexia.

Developmental dyslexia is a severe reading disorder, which is characterized by dysfluent reading and impaired automaticity of visual word processing. Adults with dyslexia show functional deficits in several brain regions including the so-called "Visual Word Form Area" (VWFA), which is implicated in visual word processing and located within the larger left occipitotemporal VWF-System. The present study examines functional connections of the left occipitotemporal VWF-System with other major language areas in children with dyslexia. Functional connectivity MRI was used to assess connectivity of the VWF-System in 18 children with dyslexia and 24 age-matched controls (age 9.7-12.5 years) using five neighboring left occipitotemporal regions of interest (ROIs) during a continuous reading task requiring phonological and orthographic processing. First, the results revealed a focal origin of connectivity from the VWF-System, in that mainly the VWFA was functionally connected with typical left frontal and parietal language areas in control children. Adjacent posterior and anterior VWF-System ROIs did not show such connectivity, confirming the special role that the VWFA plays in word processing. Second, we detected a significant disruption of functional connectivity between the VWFA and left inferior frontal and left inferior parietal language areas in the children with dyslexia. The current findings add to our understanding of dyslexia by showing that functional disconnection of the left occipitotemporal system is limited to the small VWFA region crucial for automatic visual word processing, and emerges early during reading acquisition in children with dyslexia, along with deficits in orthographic and phonological processing of visual word forms.

Symbolic action priming relies on intact neural transmission along the retino-geniculo-striate pathway.

Recent psychophysics studies suggest that the behavioral impact of a visual stimulus and its conscious visual recognition underlie two functionally dissociated neuronal processes. Previous TMS studies have demonstrated that certain features of a visual stimulus can still be processed despite TMS-induced disruption of perception. Here, we tested whether symbolic action priming also remains intact despite TMS-induced masking of the prime. We applied single-pulse TMS over primary visual cortex at various temporal intervals from 20 ms to 120 ms during a supraliminal action priming paradigm. This TMS protocol enabled us to identify at what exact time point a TMS-induced activity disruption of primary visual cortex interferes with conscious visual perception of the prime versus (un)conscious behavioral priming of the visual target stimulus. We also introduced spatial uncertainty by presenting visual stimuli either above or below the fixation cross, while the TMS pulse was always targeting the prime presented below fixation. We revealed that TMS over primary visual cortex interferes with both conscious visual perception and symbolic behavioral priming in a temporarily and spatially specific manner, i.e., only when disrupting primary visual cortex at approximately the same temporal stage between 60 and 100 ms after prime onset, and only for those prime stimuli presented below fixation. These findings are in disagreement with the idea of subliminal action priming being mediated by neural pathways bypassing striate cortex, and rather suggest that symbolic action priming relies on an intact neural transmission along the retino-geniculo-striate pathway. The implications of our findings for previous reports of residual visual processing during striate TMS are discussed.

Children with dyslexia lack multiple specializations along the visual word-form (VWF) system.

Developmental dyslexia has been associated with a dysfunction of a brain region in the left inferior occipitotemporal cortex, called the "visual word-form area" (VWFA). In adult normal readers, the VWFA is specialized for print processing and sensitive to the orthographic familiarity of letter strings. However, it is still unclear whether these two levels of occipitotemporal specialization are affected in developmental dyslexia. Specifically, we investigated whether (a) these two levels of specialization are impaired in dyslexic children with only a few years of reading experience and (b) whether this impairment is confined to the left inferior occipitotemporal VWFA, or extends to adjacent regions of the "VWF-system" with its posterior-anterior gradient of print specialization. Using fMRI, we measured brain activity in 18 dyslexic and 24 age-matched control children (age 9.7-12.5 years) while they indicated if visual stimuli (real words, pseudohomophones, pseudowords and false-fonts) sounded like a real word. Five adjacent regions of interest (ROIs) in the bilateral occipitotemporal cortex covered the full anterior-posterior extent of the VWF-system. We found that control and dyslexic children activated the same main areas within the reading network. However, a gradient of print specificity (higher anterior activity to letter strings but higher posterior activity to false-fonts) as well as a constant sensitivity to orthographic familiarity (higher activity for unfamiliar than familiar word-forms) along the VWF-system could only be detected in controls. In conclusion, analyzing responses and specialization profiles along the left VWF-system reveals that children with dyslexia show impaired specialization for both print and orthography.

Genetic analysis of dyslexia candidate genes in the European cross-linguistic NeuroDys cohort.

Dyslexia is one of the most common childhood disorders with a prevalence of around 5-10% in school-age children. Although an important genetic component is known to have a role in the aetiology of dyslexia, we are far from understanding the molecular mechanisms leading to the disorder. Several candidate genes have been implicated in dyslexia, including DYX1C1, DCDC2, KIAA0319, and the MRPL19/C2ORF3 locus, each with reports of both positive and no replications. We generated a European cross-linguistic sample of school-age children - the NeuroDys cohort - that includes more than 900 individuals with dyslexia, sampled with homogenous inclusion criteria across eight European countries, and a comparable number of controls. Here, we describe association analysis of the dyslexia candidate genes/locus in the NeuroDys cohort. We performed both case-control and quantitative association analyses of single markers and haplotypes previously reported to be dyslexia-associated. Although we observed association signals in samples from single countries, we did not find any marker or haplotype that was significantly associated with either case-control status or quantitative measurements of word-reading or spelling in the meta-analysis of all eight countries combined. Like in other neurocognitive disorders, our findings underline the need for larger sample sizes to validate possibly weak genetic effects.

Reading for meaning in dyslexic and young children: distinct neural pathways but common endpoints.

Developmental dyslexia is a highly prevalent and specific disorder of reading acquisition characterised by impaired reading fluency and comprehension. We have previously identified fMRI- and ERP-based neural markers of impaired sentence reading in dyslexia that indicated both deviant basic word processing and deviant semantic incongruency processing. However, it remained unclear how specific these impairments are for dyslexia, as they occurred when children with dyslexia (DYS) were compared to chronological age-matched controls (CA) who also differ in the amount of reading experience. Adding a younger control group at a similar reading level (RL) as the dyslexic group, we examined here which of these markers would be specific for dyslexia despite matched performance, and which would resemble a developmental delay. Both the RL group and the DYS group showed a similar reversal of incongruency effects in the inferior parietal region (fMRI data) and similarly reduced incongruency effects around 400 ms (ERP data) compared to the CA group, suggesting that the semantic impairment in dyslexia resembles a developmental delay. Furthermore, the DYS group showed reduced sentence reading-related activation in the inferior parietal cortex in the fMRI data, and at around 100 ms (trend) and 400 ms in the ERP data when compared to both CA and RL groups, suggesting dyslexia-specific deficits in basic word processing during sentence reading. Low reading skills due to young age and due to dyslexia-specific word processing deficits thus reflect different pathways which impair semantic processing in similar ways.

Neurophysiology in preschool improves behavioral prediction of reading ability throughout primary school.

BACKGROUND: More struggling readers could profit from additional help at the beginning of reading acquisition if dyslexia prediction were more successful. Currently, prediction is based only on behavioral assessment of early phonological processing deficits associated with dyslexia, but it might be improved by adding brain-based measures. METHODS: In a 5-year longitudinal study of children with (n = 21) and without (n = 23) familial risk for dyslexia, we tested whether neurophysiological measures of automatic phoneme and tone deviance processing obtained in kindergarten would improve prediction of reading over behavioral measures alone. RESULTS: Together, neurophysiological and behavioral measures obtained in kindergarten significantly predicted reading in school. Particularly the late mismatch negativity measure that indicated hemispheric lateralization of automatic phoneme processing improved prediction of reading ability over behavioral measures. It was also the only significant predictor for long-term reading success in fifth grade. Importantly, this result also held for the subgroup of children at familial risk. CONCLUSIONS: The results demonstrate that brain-based measures of processing deficits associated with dyslexia improve prediction of reading and thus may be further evaluated to complement clinical practice of dyslexia prediction, especially in targeted populations, such as children with a familial risk.

Impaired semantic processing during sentence reading in children with dyslexia: combined fMRI and ERP evidence.

Developmental dyslexia is a specific disorder of reading acquisition characterized by a phonological core deficit. Sentence reading is also impaired in dyslexic readers, but whether semantic processing deficits contribute is unclear. Combining spatially and temporally sensitive neuroimaging techniques to focus on semantic processing can provide a more comprehensive characterization of sentence reading in dyslexia. We recorded brain activity from 52 children (16 with dyslexia, 31 controls) with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and event-related potentials (ERP) in two separate counterbalanced sessions. The children silently read and occasionally judged simple sentences with semantically congruous or incongruous endings. fMRI and ERP activation during sentence reading and semantic processing was analyzed across all children and also by comparing children with dyslexia to controls. For sentence reading, we analyzed the response to all words in a sentence; for semantic processing, we contrasted responses to incongruous and congruous endings. Sentence reading was characterized by activation in a left-lateralized language network. Semantic processing was characterized by activation in left-hemispheric regions of the inferior frontal and superior temporal cortex and by an electrophysiological N400 effect after 240 ms with consistent left anterior source localization. Children with dyslexia showed decreased activation for sentence reading in inferior parietal and frontal regions, and for semantic processing in inferior parietal regions, and during the N400 effect. Together, this suggests that semantic impairment during sentence reading reduces dyslexic children's response in left anterior brain regions underlying the more phasic N400 effect and subsequently modulates the more sustained BOLD response in left inferior parietal regions.