Development of executive function-relevant skills is related to both neural structure and function in infants.

The development of skills related to executive function (EF) in infancy, including their emergence, underlying neural mechanisms, and interconnections to other cognitive skills, is an area of increasing research interest. Here, we report on findings from a multidimensional dataset demonstrating that infants' behavioral performance on a flexible learning task improved across development and that the task performance is highly correlated with both neural structure and neural function. The flexible learning task probed infants' ability to learn two different associations, concurrently, over 16 trials, requiring multiple skills relevant to EF. We examined infants' neural structure by measuring myelin density in the brain, using a novel macromolecular proton fraction (MPF) mapping method. We further examined an important neural function of speech processing by characterizing the mismatch response (MMR) to speech contrasts using magnetoencephalography (MEG). All measurements were performed longitudinally in monolingual English-learning infants at 7- and 11-months of age. At the group level, 11-month-olds, but not 7-month-olds, demonstrated evidence of learning both associations in the behavioral task. Myelin density in the prefrontal region at 7 months of age was found to be highly predictive of behavioral task performance at 11 months of age, suggesting that myelination may support the development of these skills. Furthermore, a machine-learning regression analysis revealed that individual differences in the behavioral task are predicted by concurrent neural speech processing at both ages, suggesting that these skills do not develop in isolation. Together, these cross-modality results revealed novel insights into EF-related skills. HIGHLIGHT: Monolingual infants demonstrated flexible learning on a task requiring executive function skills at 11 months, but not at 7 months. Infants' myelin density at 7 months is highly predictive of their behavioral performance in the flexible learning task at 11 months of age. Individual differences in the flexible learning task performance are also correlated with concurrent neural processing of speech at both ages.

Why do early mathematics skills predict later mathematics and reading achievement? The role of executive function.

A robust association between young children's early mathematical proficiency and later academic achievement is well established. Less is known about the mechanisms through which early mathematics skills may contribute to later mathematics and especially reading achievement. Using a parallel multiple mediator model, the current study investigated whether executive function (integration of working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility) can explain the relations between early mathematics skills and elementary school mathematics and reading achievement. Data in this longitudinal study were collected from 243 children during the last year of early childhood education and care (kindergarten ages 5 and 6 years), 1 year later in first grade, and 5 years later when the children were in fifth grade. Background variables (maternal education, age, sex, and immigrant status), kindergarten baseline skills, and mediating effects of first-grade mathematics, phonological awareness, vocabulary, and possible omitted variables were controlled. Results showed that first-grade executive function mediated the effects of kindergarten mathematics on fifth-grade mathematics and on reading achievement. These findings suggest that executive function may work as a mechanism that may help to explain the frequently found strong association between children's early mathematics skills and later mathematics and reading achievement.

The effect of prenatal smoke exposure on child neuropsychological function: a prospective mother-child cohort study.

Objective: To study prospectively the effect of prenatal smoke exposure (PSE) on child neuropsychological function and intelligence quotient (IQ).Background: PSE has been associated with adverse effects on child neurodevelopment. However, some studies reported that these associations disappear after adjustment for potential confounders.Methods: A cohortof 248 mothers-child dyad was followed from the first trimester of pregnancy until children were 7.5 years old. PSE was recorded during pregnancy by questionnaire and plasma cotinine. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, the Neuropsychological Assessment of Executive Functions for Children (ENFEN) and the School Neuropsychological Maturity Questionnaire were administered at 7.5 years of age. The effect of PSE on child IQ and neuropsychological function was assessed with ANCOVA, adjusting for obstetric, neonatal and sociodemographic factors.Results: Children whose mothers smoked throughout pregnancy scored lower in interference (ENFEN) compared to unexposed children (F = 4.1; p = .008). The results showed no differences in other executive functions, verbal and visual memory and IQ between the PSE groups.Conclusion: PSE had little effect on child neuropsychological outcome and was limited to mental flexibility. Nevertheless, these findings support further efforts aimed at encouraging mothers to quit smoking in pregnancy.

Does executive function mediate the path from mothers' depressive symptoms to young children's problem behaviors?

This study investigated the mediation role played by children's executive function in the relationship between exposure to mild maternal depressive symptoms and problem behaviors. At ages 2, 3, and 6years, 143 children completed executive function tasks and a verbal ability test. Mothers completed the Beck Depression Inventory at each time-point, and teachers completed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire at child age 6. Longitudinal autoregressive mediation models showed a mediation effect that was significant and quite specific; executive function (and not verbal ability) at age 3 mediated the path between mothers' depressive symptoms (but not general social disadvantage) at the first time-point and children's externalizing and internalizing problems at age 6. Improving children's executive functioning might protect them against the adverse effects of exposure to maternal depressive symptoms.

Cognitive functioning in adults with autism spectrum disorder.

INTRODUCTION: Neuropsychological deficits in areas of Executive Functioning (EF), theory of mind, and central coherence have been well-documented among children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD); however, there remains a significant gap in knowledge with regards to neuropsychological profile in adults with ASD. This study aims to investigate the intellectual functioning and neuropsychological profiles of a clinical population of adults with ASD. METHODS: This cross-sectional study included 40 available autistic individuals referred to an adult developmental disorders clinic at a hospital between 2021 and 2022. All participants were assessed using the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS), Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ), Ritvo Autism Asperger Diagnostic Scale-Revised (RAADS-R), and Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS). RESULTS: Individuals with ASD exhibited lower IQ scores across all domains of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, compared to the general population, although the mean IQ scores remained within the normal range. Significant differences were observed in Full Scale IQ, Verbal IQ, Non-Verbal IQ, Fluid Reasoning, Knowledge, Quantitative Reasoning, Visual-Spatial Processing, and Working Memory compared to the general population. Additionally, autistic individuals' performance on verbal knowledge was higher compared to non-verbal knowledge. No significant correlations were found between the total and subscale scores of verbal and nonverbal IQ and AQ, RAADS-R, and SRS scores. CONCLUSION: Considering the significant impacts of cognitive and executive function on the social and occupational aspects of autistic adults, further investigations in this area are warranted.

Assessing the Contribution of Measures of Attention and Executive Function to Diagnosis of ADHD or Autism.

Attention and executive function (EF) dysregulation are common in a number of disorders including autism and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Better understanding of the relationship between indirect and direct measures of attention and EF and common neurodevelopmental diagnoses may contribute to more efficient and effective diagnostic assessment in childhood. We obtained cognitive (NIH Toolbox, Little Man Task, Matrix Reasoning Task, and Rey Delayed Recall) and symptom (CBCL, and BPMT) assessment data from the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) database for three groups, autistic (N = 110), ADHD (N = 878), and control without autism or ADHD diagnoses (N = 9130) and used ridge regression to determine which attention and EF assessments were most strongly associated with autism or ADHD. More variance was accounted for in the model for the ADHD group (31%) compared to the autism group (2.7%). Finally, we ran odds ratios (using clinical cutoffs where available and 2 standard deviations below the mean when not) for each assessment measure, which generally demonstrated a greater significance within the indirect measures when compared to the direct measures. These results add to the growing literature of symptom variably across diagnostic groups allowing for better understanding of presentations in autism and ADHD and how best to assess diagnosis. It also highlights the increased difficulty in differentiating autism and controls when compared to ADHD and controls and the importance of indirect measures of attention and EF in this differentiation.

ASD and ADHD: Divergent activating patterns of prefrontal cortex in executive function tasks?

The functional Near-infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) has been more and more widely used to measure the activation state of prefrontal cortex when performing function-related tasks among children with various developmental disorders. Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have shown obvious executive function defects. We aimed to summarize the studies with fNIRS, to summarize the activation patterns of prefrontal cortex (PFC) of participants with ASD or ADHD in performing functional tasks. We selected 630 articles according to PRISMA guidelines, and the eligibility criteria were: 6-16 years old individuals diagnosed with ASD or ADHD by DSM-4 or 5, using fNIRS, having executive function (EF) task, typical development (TD) control, and between-group comparison of PFC activation. Eleven studies were finally included in the quantitative analysis, and compared to TD, ASD and ADHD showed the opposite PFC activation patterns during n-back tasks. We discussed the task-specific PFC activation in young participants with ASD and ADHD, and provided some new ideas on that issue.

Assessing executive functions in free-roaming 2- to 3-year-olds.

Introduction: Core aspects of executive functions (EFs) are known to be related to academic skills such as literacy and numeracy. However, school outcomes may also be related to higher-level functions such as planning. Nevertheless, few studies have considered assessing natural manifestations of higher-level EFs in children who are on the cusp of entering formal schooling. One reason for this is the difficulty of obtaining ecologically valid measures of EFs in preschool-aged children. Method: We describe a novel task - building a striped Duplo tower subject to two constraints - designed to assess planning in real-world multi-action situation. Children were instructed to build a tower to a certain height by alternating between two different colors of blocks. Results: Performance on one of the constraints in this task was found to vary with age. Importantly, distinct components of multiple constraints planning performance predicted laboratory-based measures of inhibitory control and working memory efficacy. Discussion: Thus, this task provides a simple, cheap and effective way of assessing executive function in toddlers through the observation of natural behavior. It also opens up possibilities to investigate the neurodevelopment of EF in the real world.

A time-series perspective on executive functioning: The benefits of a dynamic approach to random number generation.

OBJECTIVES: Executive functioning (EF) is a key topic in neuropsychology. A multitude of underlying processes and constructs have been suggested to explain EF, which are measured by at least as many different neuropsychological tests. However, these tests often refer to summary statistics to quantify the construct under study, failing to capture the dynamic nature of EF. An alternative to these summary statistics is a time-series approach that quantifies all the available temporal information. METHODS: We used recurrence quantification analysis (RQA) to quantify the characteristics of any temporal pattern in random number generation data and we compared RQA to the traditional and static analysis of random number sequences. RESULTS: The traditional measures yield inconsistent results with increasing sequences length, both for computer-generated and human-generated sequences, whereas the RQA measures do not. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that a time-series approach does a better job at modelling what is happening on different time-scales, and, therefore, is better at explaining how EF is changing in the course of the random number generation task. We argue that it is likely that these findings also apply to other neuropsychological EF tests, and that a time-series approach is an important addition to the study of EF.

Training in new forms of human-AI interaction improves complex working memory and switching skills of language professionals.

AI-related technologies used in the language industry, including automatic speech recognition (ASR) and machine translation (MT), are designed to improve human efficiency. However, humans are still in the loop for accuracy and quality, creating a working environment based on Human-AI Interaction (HAII). Very little is known about these newly-created working environments and their effects on cognition. The present study focused on a novel practice, interlingual respeaking (IRSP), where real-time subtitles in another language are created through the interaction between a human and ASR software. To this end, we set up an experiment that included a purpose-made training course on IRSP over 5 weeks, investigating its effects on cognition, and focusing on executive functioning (EF) and working memory (WM). We compared the cognitive performance of 51 language professionals before and after the course. Our variables were reading span (a complex WM measure), switching skills, and sustained attention. IRSP training course improved complex WM and switching skills but not sustained attention. However, the participants were slower after the training, indicating increased vigilance with the sustained attention tasks. Finally, complex WM was confirmed as the primary competence in IRSP. The reasons and implications of these findings will be discussed.

A randomized, sham-controlled trial of high-definition transcranial direct current stimulation on the right orbital frontal cortex in children and adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Objective: This study aimed to find out the clinical and cognitive effects of high-definition transcranial direct current stimulation (HD-tDCS) on the right orbital frontal cortex (OFC) in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Methods: A total of 56 patients with ADHD were recruited as subjects and completely and randomly divided into the HD-tDCS group and the Sham group. A 1.0 mA anode current was applied to the right OFC. The HD-tDCS group received real stimulation, while the Sham group received sham stimulation in 10 sessions of treatment. ADHD symptom assessment (the SNAP-IV Rating Scale and the Perceived Stress Questionnaire) was carried out before treatment, after the 5th and 10th stimuli, and at the 6th week after the end of all stimulations, while the cognitive effect was assessed by the Integrated Visual and Auditory Continuous Performance Test (IVA-CPT), the Stroop Color and Word Test (Stroop), and the Tower of Hanoi (TOH). Repeated-measure ANOVA was used to find out the results of both groups before and after treatment. Results: A total of 47 patients completed all sessions and evaluations. Their SNAP-IV score, their PSQ score, the mean visual and auditory reaction times by IVA-CPT, the interference RT of Stroop Color and Word, and the number of completed steps of TOH did not change with intervention time before and after treatment (P > 0.0031). However, the integrated visual and audiovisual commission errors and the TOH completion time results of the HD-tDCS group were significantly decreased after the 5th intervention, the 10th intervention, and the 6th week of intervention follow-up compared to the Sham group (P < 0.0031). Conclusion: This study draws cautious conclusions that HD-tDCS does not significantly alleviate the overall symptoms of patients with ADHD but leads to significant improvements in the cognitive measures of attention maintenance. The study also attempted to fill in the gaps in research studies on HD-tDCS stimulation of the right OFC. Clinical trial registration: ChiCTR2200062616.

Cognitive Foundations of Early Mathematics: Investigating the Unique Contributions of Numerical, Executive Function, and Spatial Skills.

There is an emerging consensus that numerical, executive function (EF), and spatial skills are foundational to children's mathematical learning and development. Moreover, each skill has been theorized to relate to mathematics for different reasons. Thus, it is possible that each cognitive construct is related to mathematics through distinct pathways. The present study tests this hypothesis. One-hundred and eighty 4- to 9-year-olds (Mage = 6.21) completed a battery of numerical, EF, spatial, and mathematics measures. Factor analyses revealed strong, but separable, relations between children's numerical, EF, and spatial skills. Moreover, the three-factor model (i.e., modelling numerical, EF, and spatial skills as separate latent variables) fit the data better than a general intelligence (g-factor) model. While EF skills were the only unique predictor of number line performance, spatial skills were the only unique predictor of arithmetic (addition) performance. Additionally, spatial skills were related to the use of more advanced addition strategies (e.g., composition/decomposition and retrieval), which in turn were related to children's overall arithmetic performance. That is, children's strategy use fully mediated the relation between spatial skills and arithmetic performance. Taken together, these findings provide new insights into the cognitive foundations of early mathematics, with implications for assessment and instruction moving forward.

A Novel Perspective on the Proactive and Reactive Controls of Executive Function in Chronic Stroke Patients.

Objectives: To investigate the proactive and reactive control process when executing a complex task in patients with stroke. Proactive control is the preparatory process before the target stimulus, whereas reactive control is an imperative resolution of interference after the target stimulus. Methods: In total, 17 patients with chronic stroke and 17 healthy individuals were recruited. The proactive and reactive control of executive function was assessed by the task-switching paradigm and the AX version of the Continuous Performance Task (AX-CPT). The general executive function was assessed by Color Trial Test (CTT) and Stroop Test. The behavioral data of the task-switching paradigm were analyzed by a three-way repeated-measures ANOVA, and the AX-CPT data were analyzed by two-way repeated-measures ANOVA. Results: For efficiency scores in the task-switching paradigm, trial (repeat vs. switch) × group (stroke or control group) interaction effect was significant. Post-hoc analysis on trial × group effect showed a significant between-trial difference in accuracy rates in the repeat trial in the control group regardless of 100 or 50% validity. For the AX-CPT, the main effects of condition and group on response time were statistically significant. The interaction effect of condition (AY or BX) × group (stroke or control group) was also significant. Post-hoc analysis for condition × group indicated that the stroke group had a significantly longer response time in the BX condition than the control group and longer completion time in CTT2 and larger word interference for completion time in the Stroop test than the control cohort. Conclusions: Post-stroke survivors showed deficits in the performance of proactive control but not in the performance of reactive control. Deficits in proactive control may be related to the impairment of working memory. Interventions that focus on proactive control may result in improved clinical outcomes.

Executive function and effortful control-Similar and different evidence from big data analysis.

Introduction: The current study explored commonalities and similarities between executive function (EF) and effortful control (EC). Methods: The major empirical studies published between 2013 and 2022 in the World of Science (WoS) was collected. The bibliographic information was systematically analyzed. Results and discussion: (1) EC is the efficiency of executive attention that incorporates inhibitory control (IC), attentional control, activation mainly related to temperament. On the other hand, EF is the efficiency of self-directed action that encompasses IC, working memory (WM), and shifting/cognitive flexibility in particular focuses on the cognitive aspect. (2) EF research has overwhelmingly outnumbered EC research (2,000 EF studies vs. 50 EC studies per year). (3) According to a co-word analysis with keyword co-occurrences, the subject of preschool students and individual differences co-occurred in EF studies. (4) EC usually occurs with working memory and early childhood. In the more detailed analysis of the articles, the EF and EC studies used younger subject groups than older subject groups. EC studies were especially likely to use subjects in early childhood. (5) The Delis-Kaplan Tests of Executive Functioning System (D-KEFS) was the most commonly used test for EF. In contrast, the EC used self-report surveys such as the Adolescent Temperament Questionnaire (ATQ). This research illustrates and discusses key findings in the EC and EF data and provides suggestions for future study directions.

Adult ADHD, executive function, depressive/anxiety symptoms, and quality of life: A serial two-mediator model.

BACKGROUND: Adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is associated with impaired executive function (EF), depressive/anxiety symptoms, and poor quality of life (QoL). In this study, we aimed to investigate correlations among these variables and to build a simple or serial mediation model for exploring the mechanisms between adult ADHD and QoL. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study. The sample included 223 participants with ADHD and 54 healthy volunteers. Participants were required to complete the following scales: ADHD Rating Scale (ADHD-RS), Brief Version of the World Health Organization Quality of Life Scale (WHOQOL-BREF), Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Adult Version (BRIEF-A), Self-rating Depression Scale (SDS) and Self-rating Anxiety Scale (SAS). Correlations among EF, depressive/anxiety symptoms and QoL were analyzed using Pearson correlation. The simple and serial mediation models were analyzed using PROCESS (version 3.3). RESULTS: The correlations between EF and QoL, depressive/anxiety symptoms and QoL, and depressive/anxiety symptoms and EF were statistically significant. In ADHD adults with comorbidities, the correlation coefficients were between -0.19 and -0.47, -0.20 and -0.62, 0.28 and 0.50, respectively. In simple mediation models, EF and depressive/anxiety symptoms were significant mediators respectively between ADHD and QoL, respectively. In a serial two-mediator model, ADHD could affect QoL indirectly via EF and then via depressive/anxiety symptoms significantly. LIMITATIONS: The average age was young, the degree of education was high, and only self-reported scales were relied on. CONCLUSIONS: There is a mutual effect between EF and emotional symptoms. This was the first study to build a serial two-mediator model between ADHD and QoL, suggesting the importance of EF and depressive/anxiety symptoms.

Parent Provision of Choice Is a Key Component of Autonomy Support in Predicting Child Executive Function Skills.

Although previous work has linked parent autonomy support to the development of children's executive function (EF) skills, the role of specific autonomy-supportive behaviors has not been thoroughly investigated. We compiled data from four preschool-age samples in the Midwestern United States (N = 366; M age = 44.26 months; 72% non-Hispanic White, 19% Black/African American, 5% Multiracial) to examine three relevant autonomy-supportive behaviors (supporting competence, positive verbalizations, and offering choice) and their associations with child EF. We coded parent autonomy-supportive behaviors from a 10-min interaction between parent and child dyads working on challenging jigsaw puzzles together. Children completed a battery of EF. Overall, child EF was most consistently correlated with the offering choice subscale. Additionally, only the offering choice subscale predicted child EF while controlling for the other autonomy support subscales and child age. These results suggest that parent provision of choice is an especially relevant aspect of autonomy-supportive parenting and may be important to the development of EF in early childhood. Future research should directly measure children's experience with choice and how it relates to emerging EF.

Measurement of neurodevelopmental effects of prenatal alcohol exposure in Ukrainian preschool children.

Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) are rarely measured in preschool children due to relative insensitivity of assessment methods at this age. To examine the potential of a nonverbal battery in early identification of cognitive problems in alcohol-exposed children, 291 prospectively identified Ukrainian children were evaluated using a test battery focusing on early executive functioning (EF) and visuospatial skills, areas of cognitive development particularly sensitive to PAE in older children. Tests included the Differential Ability Scales, 2nd Edition (DAS-2) and several NEPSY/NEPSY-II subtests, standardized in the United States. Others were adapted from commonly used non-standardized neuropsychological measures of EF (Preschool Spatial Span, Imitation Hand Game, A not B, Delayed Attention, Subject Ordered Pointing). Children in two sites in Ukraine, Rivne and Khmelnitsky, were tested at 3 ½-4 ½ years to identify effects of PAE. Although most children performed within the average range, Alcohol-Exposed preschoolers had lower scores on DAS-II Summary Scores as well as on specific subtests. To evaluate the effects of alcohol dose during the pre-pregnancy recognition period and during mid-gestation of pregnancy, generalized linear regression models were used controlling for demographic and individual variables. In addition to DAS-II variables, measures reflecting sustained attention, working memory and ability to shift cognitive set were impacted by alcohol dose. Early executive function appears to subsume these performance differences. In conclusion, findings indicate that the effects of PAE can be identified in the preschool period and reliably measured using tests assessing nonverbal and spatial skills supported by executive functioning.

Which Factor Is More Relevant to the Effectiveness of the Cognitive Intervention? A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials of Cognitive Training on Symptoms and Executive Function Behaviors of Children With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.

Objective: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by developmentally inappropriate inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Multiple cognitive training appeared to be more effective than working memory training, but the evidence remains insufficient, particularly for the subgroup symptoms and executive function behaviors at home. Further analysis of the impact of factors on the effectiveness would facilitate the development of cognitive training. Methods: We searched PubMed, Cochrane Library, Psyche, Embase, Chinese Biomedical Literature Database, CNKI, and Weifang Database, and included randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of children with ADHD undergoing cognitive intervention. Metaanalysis and univariate metaregression were performed by STATE. The risk of bias was assessed with the Cochrane risk of bias tool 2.0 by the two investigators separately. This study was registered with INPLASY, number INPLASY202140065. Results: We included 17 RCTs in the systematic review, with a combined 1,075 participants. For metaanalyses of both subgroups of ADHD symptoms and the executive function behaviors, the test of published bias failed to reach the p < 0.05 level. When all of the training are considered together, cognitive training can improve the presentation of inattention symptoms [SMD = -0.390, 95%CI (-0.675, -0.104)] and executive function behaviors (SMD = -0.319, 95%CI (-0.527, -0.111)]. In the subgroup analysis, the effects of working memory training on both presentations were not statistically significant. In contrast, the multiple cognitive training had significant effects on the presentation of inattention symptoms [SMD = -0.507, 95% CI (-0.722, -0.292)], hyperactivity/impulsivity [SMD = -0.305, 95% CI (-0.518, -0.09)], and the executive function behaviors [SMD = -0.499, 95%CI (-0.707, -0.290)]. In addition, metaregression analysis showed that only training frequency did significantly impact the symptoms of ADHD and the executive function behaviors. Conclusion: This study showed that improvements in symptoms and executive function behaviors were related to the domains of cognitive intervention. The findings suggest that multiple domains of cognitive training and moderate training frequency may have wider clinical benefits. All the above results highlight further research in refining the executive functions of children with ADHD and developing individually tailored cognitive intervention on homes based for children with vulnerable executive functions. Systematic Review Registration: [http://inplasy.com/], [INPLASY202140065].

Measuring Early Childhood Development Among 4-6 Year Olds: The Identification of Psychometrically Robust Items Across Diverse Contexts.

The last 15 years have seen an explosion of measurement tools for assessing the development of young children in low- and middle- income countries. This paper builds on and contributes to that literature by identifying a core set of caregiver-report items and a core set of direct assessment items that measure key developmental domains for children aged 4-6 (48-83 months) and that demonstrate adequate psychometric properties across diverse contexts, the first in this age group to the authors' knowledge. Data were harmonized from previous early childhood measurement efforts in 12 countries that all used the same base measurement tool. Data analyses yielded 20 caregiver report items and 84 child direct assessment items (grouped into 16 tasks) that show strong item-level statistics across countries and that cover the domains of early literacy, early numeracy, executive functioning, and social-emotional competencies. Next steps include adding data and items from other measurement tools to the same analytical framework and field testing across a number of contexts and early childhood measurement efforts. The vision is for the resulting core sets of items, along with guidance on data collection, management, and analysis, to serve as global public goods so that they can (i) present a starting point for linking across different early childhood measurement tools for children aged 4-6; (ii) increase quality across measurement efforts; and (iii) facilitate the scale up of early childhood measurement. When supplemented with items that capture local contexts and their measurement needs, these core sets of items should help to advance understanding of universal and context-specific factors that underlie child development and thus help policymakers make decisions that ensure children receive the quality early childhood care and education they need in order to reach their full potential.

A meta-analysis of the relationship between empathy and executive function.

The current meta-analysis was designed to determine the relationship between executive function (EF) and empathy, as well as to identify any moderators. A search of Chinese and English databases yielded 18 studies and 67 effect sizes involving a total of 6006 participants. Results with the random effects model showed that EF was significantly positively correlated with empathy (r = .14, p < .001). Subgroup analysis showed that EF was more strongly related to cognitive empathy (r = .20, p < .001) than to affective empathy (r = .09, p = .03). Looking at the two dimensions of empathy, we further found that cognitive empathy is closely related to subcomponents of EF, including inhibitory control (r = .23, p < .001), working memory (r = .20, p < .001), and cognitive flexibility (r = .15, p = .036), while only affective empathy was closely related to inhibitory control (r = .12, p < .001). Results suggested that future research should consider that the relationship between empathy and EF varies depending on the division of specific subcomponents. This finding may help in explaining possible mechanisms of how EF affects empathy.