Investigating the impact of schizophrenia traits on attention: the role of the theta band in a modified Posner cueing paradigm.

Joint attention is an indispensable tool for daily communication. Abnormalities in joint attention may be a key reason underlying social impairment in schizophrenia spectrum disorders. In this study, we aimed to explore the attentional orientation mechanism related to schizotypal traits in a social situation. Here, we employed a Posner cueing paradigm with social attentional cues. Subjects needed to detect the location of a target that is cued by gaze and head orientation. The power in the theta frequency band was used to examine the attentional process in the schizophrenia spectrum. There were four main findings. First, a significant association was found between schizotypal traits and attention orientation in response to invalid gaze cues. Second, individuals with schizotypal traits exhibited significant activation of neural oscillations and synchrony in the theta band, which correlated with their schizotypal tendencies. Third, neural oscillations and synchrony demonstrated a synergistic effect during social tasks, particularly when processing gaze cues. Finally, the relationship between schizotypal traits and attention orientation was mediated by neural oscillations and synchrony in the theta frequency band. These findings deepen our understanding of the impact of theta activity in schizotypal traits on joint attention and offer new insights for future intervention strategies.

Variation of subclinical psychosis across 16 sites in Europe and Brazil: findings from the multi-national EU-GEI study.

BACKGROUND: Incidence of first-episode psychosis (FEP) varies substantially across geographic regions. Phenotypes of subclinical psychosis (SP), such as psychotic-like experiences (PLEs) and schizotypy, present several similarities with psychosis. We aimed to examine whether SP measures varied across different sites and whether this variation was comparable with FEP incidence within the same areas. We further examined contribution of environmental and genetic factors to SP. METHODS: We used data from 1497 controls recruited in 16 different sites across 6 countries. Factor scores for several psychopathological dimensions of schizotypy and PLEs were obtained using multidimensional item response theory models. Variation of these scores was assessed using multi-level regression analysis to estimate individual and between-sites variance adjusting for age, sex, education, migrant, employment and relational status, childhood adversity, and cannabis use. In the final model we added local FEP incidence as a second-level variable. Association with genetic liability was examined separately. RESULTS: Schizotypy showed a large between-sites variation with up to 15% of variance attributable to site-level characteristics. Adding local FEP incidence to the model considerably reduced the between-sites unexplained schizotypy variance. PLEs did not show as much variation. Overall, SP was associated with younger age, migrant, unmarried, unemployed and less educated individuals, cannabis use, and childhood adversity. Both phenotypes were associated with genetic liability to schizophrenia. CONCLUSIONS: Schizotypy showed substantial between-sites variation, being more represented in areas where FEP incidence is higher. This supports the hypothesis that shared contextual factors shape the between-sites variation of psychosis across the spectrum.

The positive dimension of schizotypy is associated with self-report measures of autobiographical memory and future thinking but not experimenter-scored indices.

ABSTRACTThe ability to remember our past and to imagine the future are critical to our sense of self. Previous research has indicated that they are disrupted in schizophrenia. However, it is unclear (i) whether this is found when examining experimenter-scored indices of content and/or participants' self-report of phenomenological characteristics, and (ii) how these abilities might be related to symptoms. This study sought to address these questions by taking a dimensional approach and measuring positive and negative schizotypal experiences in healthy people (n = 90). Participants were given cue words. For some, they remembered an event from the past and for others they generated an event in the future. No significant relationships were found with any aspect of schizotypy when participants' descriptions were scored by the experimenter according to a standardised episodic content measure. In contrast, several significant positive correlations were observed for past memory and future thinking when examining the positive dimension of schizotypy and participants' ratings, particularly to sensory characteristics of the experience and mental pre- or reliving. These results indicate enhanced subjective experiences of autobiographical memory and future thinking in those who report delusional and hallucinatory-like occurrences, which might be linked to mental imagery or metacognitive alterations.

Schizotypy and perceptual span in a non-clinical sample: a virtual reality study.

INTRODUCTION: Individuals with high schizotypy or schizophrenia exhibit difficulties in distributing their attention across space, leading to a reduction in their "perceptual span" - the extent of visual space that can be attended to at once. In this study, we aim to explore the correlation between schizotypy and perceptual span in a non-clinical sample to investigate whether perceptual span correlates with schizotypy across its range. METHODS: Schizotypy was assessed in fifty-five participants using the Schizotypy Personality Questionnaire (SPQ; Raine, 1991). Participants were required to attend to two dynamic targets displayed in a head-mounted virtual reality display. Perceptual span was estimated as the lateral angle of separation between the two targets beyond which performance in the task dropped to threshold. RESULTS: Participants with higher schizotypy scores performed significantly worse on the task. Of all the factors associated with schizotypy, the shared variance between Disorganisation and Cognitive/Perceptual Factors was most predictive of task performance. CONCLUSION: The results support the hypothesis that schizotypy predicts perceptual span in non-clinical samples. Furthermore, the demonstration of a reduced perceptual span in individuals with higher trait schizotypy shows that variations in an individual's capacity to divide attention across space can be accurately captured using a virtual reality head-mounted display.

Pattern glare sensitivity distinguishes subclinical autism and schizotypy.

INTRODUCTION: Schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder are distinct neurodevelopmental disorders sharing clinically relevant behaviours. However, early sensory responses show divergent responses. Individuals with schizophrenia typically exhibit cortical hypo-excitability whereas individuals with autism show cortical hyperexcitability. Identifying reliable neurobiological differences between the disorders can diminish misdiagnosis and optimise treatments. METHODS: The pattern glare test (PGT) is a simple measure of behavioural hyperexcitability. It measures the number of illusions seen in a static horizontal grating. We collected PGT data from non-clinical adults varying in traits of autism and schizophrenia (schizotypy). 576 undergraduate students completed an online survey consisting of the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire - Brief Revised, the Autism Spectrum Quotient, and the PGT. RESULTS: Subclinical autism and schizotypy traits were highly positively correlated. However, only schizotypy scores were significantly predictive of reporting more pattern glare (PG) illusions. When assessing the subcomponents of the schizotypy and autism scores, positive and disorganised schizotypy traits were predictive of reporting more PG illusions. Whereas, subclinical autism factors were not predictive of PG illusions. CONCLUSIONS: High schizotypy performed the PGT in a manner consistent with behavioural hyperexcitability. The PGT distinguished subclinical autistic traits from schizotypy, suggesting potential clinical application.

Investigation of Siblings of Patients Diagnosed with Substance-Induced Psychotic Disorder in terms of Cognitive Functions and Clinical High-Risk State for Psychosis.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to investigate the influence of familial predisposition on substance-induced psychosis among healthy siblings of patients diagnosed with substance-induced psychotic disorder, who themselves lack any family history of psychotic disorders. Additionally, the study aimed to explore clinical high-risk states for psychosis, schizotypal features, and neurocognitive functions in comparison to a healthy control group. METHOD: The study compared healthy siblings of 41 patients diagnosed with substance-induced psychotic disorder with 41 healthy volunteers without a family history of psychotic disorders, matching age, gender, and education. Sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of participants were obtained using data collection forms. The Comprehensive Assessment of At-Risk Mental States (CAARMS) and the Structured Interview for Schizotypy-Revised Form (SIS-R) scales were utilized to assess clinical high risk for psychosis. Neurocognitive functions were evaluated with digit span test (DST), trail making test part A-B (TMT), verbal fluency test (VFT), and Stroop test (ST). RESULTS: Analysis using the CAARMS scale revealed that 39% of siblings and 7.3% of the control group were at clinically high risk for psychosis, indicating a significant difference in rates of psychotic vulnerability. Comparison between siblings and the control group showed significant differences in mean SIS-R subscale scores, including social behavior, hypersensitivity, referential thinking, suspiciousness, illusions, and overall oddness, as well as in mean neurocognitive function scores, including errors in TMT-A, TMT-B, and VFT out-of-category errors, with siblings exhibiting poorer performance. CONCLUSION: Our study suggests that healthy siblings of patients with substance-induced psychosis exhibit more schizotypal features and have a higher risk of developing psychosis compared to healthy controls. Additionally, siblings demonstrate greater impairment in attention, response inhibition, and executive functions compared to healthy controls, indicating the potential role of genetic predisposition in the development of substance-induced psychotic disorder.

Cue-Reactive Phenomenology Mediates the Relationship Between Positive Schizotypy and Cue-Reactive Urge to Gamble in Poker-Machine Gamblers.

Although ubiquitous in numerous nightlife cultures, poker-machines present a high risk for problematic use and addiction. Previous research has demonstrated that gambling cues (e.g., flashing lights) can activate gambling urges in poker-machine gamblers. However, the processes that contribute to the maintenance of cue-reactive urges to gamble remain unclear. Consequently, the present study explored whether positive schizotypy predicted gambling urge, and whether cue-reactive altered state of awareness, cue-reactive altered time sense, and cue-reactive absorption mediated this relationship. Seventy adults aged between 19 and 68 (M = 48.86, SD = 12.82) participated in an online cue-reactivity experiment. Participants first completed the Problem Gambling Severity Index and the Unusual Experiences subscale of the Short Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences. Subsequently, at three time points (i.e., baseline, directly after a neutral cue, and directly after a gambling cue) participants completed the Altered State of Awareness, Altered Time Sense, and Absorption subscales of the Phenomenology of Consciousness Inventory and a visual analogue scale measuring cue-reactive urge to gamble. It was found that positive schizotypy was significantly positively correlated with cue-reactive urge to gamble. Additionally, cue-reactive altered state of awareness, cue-reactive altered time sense, and cue-reactive absorption mediated this relationship. The theoretical, clinical and practical implications are discussed.

Mnemonic discrimination deficits in multidimensional schizotypy.

Current developmental psychopathology models indicate that schizophrenia can be understood as the most extreme expression of a multidimensional continuum of symptoms and impairment referred to as schizotypy. In nondisordered adults, schizotypy predicts risk for developing schizophrenia-spectrum psychopathology. Schizophrenia is associated with disruptions in detecting subtle differences between objects, which is linked to hippocampal dysfunction. These disruptions have been shown in the Mnemonic Similarity Task (MST) when patients are less likely to reject lures that are similar but not identical to studied objects, and instead mistake them for studied items. This pattern of errors may be a behavioral manifestation of impaired pattern separation, a key episodic memory ability associated with hippocampal integrity and overreliance on pattern completion. We examined whether multidimensional schizotypy is associated with such deficits in nondisordered young adults. Participants (n = 230) were assessed for positive, negative, and disorganized schizotypy and completed the MST and a perceptual discrimination task. MST performance showed that a combination of elevated negative and disorganized schizotypy was associated with decreased rejections of similar lures because they were mistakenly identified as studied items. These deficits were not observed in traditional recognition measures within the same task, nor in perceptual discrimination, suggesting that mnemonic discrimination deficits assessed by MST were selective and did not reflect generalized deficits. These findings extend the results obtained in schizophrenia patients and support a multidimensional model of schizophrenia-spectrum psychopathology.

Working memory and sensory memory in subclinical high schizotypy: An avenue for understanding schizophrenia?

The search for robust, reliable biomarkers of schizophrenia remains a high priority in psychiatry. Biomarkers are valuable because they can reveal the underlying mechanisms of symptoms and monitor treatment progress and may predict future risk of developing schizophrenia. Despite the existence of various promising biomarkers that relate to symptoms across the schizophrenia spectrum, and despite published recommendations encouraging multivariate metrics, they are rarely investigated simultaneously within the same individuals. In those with schizophrenia, the magnitude of purported biomarkers is complicated by comorbid diagnoses, medications and other treatments. Here, we argue three points. First, we reiterate the importance of assessing multiple biomarkers simultaneously. Second, we argue that investigating biomarkers in those with schizophrenia-related traits (schizotypy) in the general population can accelerate progress in understanding the mechanisms of schizophrenia. We focus on biomarkers of sensory and working memory in schizophrenia and their smaller effects in individuals with nonclinical schizotypy. Third, we note irregularities across research domains leading to the current situation in which there is a preponderance of data on auditory sensory memory and visual working memory, but markedly less in visual (iconic) memory and auditory working memory, particularly when focusing on schizotypy where data are either scarce or inconsistent. Together, this review highlights opportunities for researchers without access to clinical populations to address gaps in knowledge. We conclude by highlighting the theory that early sensory memory deficits contribute negatively to working memory and vice versa. This presents a mechanistic perspective where biomarkers may interact with one another and impact schizophrenia-related symptoms.

Cognitive-perceptual traits associated with autism and schizotypy influence use of physics during predictive visual tracking.

Schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) can disrupt cognition and consequently behaviour. Traits of ASD and the subclinical manifestation of schizophrenia called schizotypy have been studied in healthy populations with overlap found in trait profiles linking ASD social deficits to negative schizotypy and ASD attention to detail to positive schizotypy. Here, we probed the relationship between subtrait profiles, cognition and behaviour, using a predictive tracking task to measure individuals' eye movements under three gravity conditions. A total of 48 healthy participants tracked an on-screen projected ball under familiar gravity, inverted upward acceleration (against gravity) and horizontal gravity control conditions while eye movements were recorded and dynamic performance quantified. Participants completed ASD and schizotypy inventories generating highly correlated scores, r = 0.73. All tracked best under the gravity condition, producing anticipatory downward responses from stimulus onset which were delayed under upward inverted gravity. Tracking performance was not associated with overall ASD or schizotypy trait levels. Combining measures using principal components analysis (PCA), we decomposed the inventories into subtraits unveiling interesting patterns. Positive schizotypy was associated with ASD dimensions of rigidity, odd behaviour and face processing, which all linked to anticipatory tracking responses under inverted gravity. In contrast, negative schizotypy was associated with ASD dimensions of social interactions and rigidity and to early stimulus-driven tracking under gravity. There was also substantial nonspecific overlap between ASD and schizotypy dissociated from tracking. Our work links positive-odd traits with anticipatory tracking when physics rules are violated and negative-social traits with exploitation of physics laws of motion.

People with high schizotypy experience more illusions in the Pattern Glare Test: Consistent with the hyperexcitability hypothesis.

Individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSD) exhibit a constellation of sensory and perceptual impairments, including hyporeactivity to external input. However, individuals with SSD also report subjective experiences of sensory flooding, suggesting sensory hyperexcitability. To identify the extent to which behavioural indices of hyperexcitability are related to non-psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia, we tested a non-clinical population measured for schizophrenia-like traits (schizotypy), and a behavioural measure of sensory hyperexcitability, specifically the number of illusions seen in the Pattern Glare Test. Two samples totaling 913 individuals completed an online version of the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire - Brief Revised (SPQ-BR) and the Pattern Glare Test. Individuals with higher schizotypy traits reported more illusions in the Pattern Glare Test. Additionally, one of the three SPQ-BR factors, the disorganized factor, significantly predicted the number of illusions reported. These data illustrate the potential for research in non-clinical samples to inform clinically relevant research.

Relationship between polygenic risk scores and symptom dimensions of schizophrenia and schizotypy in multiplex families with schizophrenia.

BACKGROUND: Psychotic disorders and schizotypal traits aggregate in the relatives of probands with schizophrenia. It is currently unclear how variability in symptom dimensions in schizophrenia probands and their relatives is associated with polygenic liability to psychiatric disorders. AIMS: To investigate whether polygenic risk scores (PRSs) can predict symptom dimensions in members of multiplex families with schizophrenia. METHOD: The largest genome-wide data-sets for schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder were used to construct PRSs in 861 participants from the Irish Study of High-Density Multiplex Schizophrenia Families. Symptom dimensions were derived using the Operational Criteria Checklist for Psychotic Disorders in participants with a history of a psychotic episode, and the Structured Interview for Schizotypy in participants without a history of a psychotic episode. Mixed-effects linear regression models were used to assess the relationship between PRS and symptom dimensions across the psychosis spectrum. RESULTS: Schizophrenia PRS is significantly associated with the negative/disorganised symptom dimension in participants with a history of a psychotic episode (P = 2.31 × 10-4) and negative dimension in participants without a history of a psychotic episode (P = 1.42 × 10-3). Bipolar disorder PRS is significantly associated with the manic symptom dimension in participants with a history of a psychotic episode (P = 3.70 × 10-4). No association with major depressive disorder PRS was observed. CONCLUSIONS: Polygenic liability to schizophrenia is associated with higher negative/disorganised symptoms in participants with a history of a psychotic episode and negative symptoms in participants without a history of a psychotic episode in multiplex families with schizophrenia. These results provide genetic evidence in support of the spectrum model of schizophrenia, and support the view that negative and disorganised symptoms may have greater genetic basis than positive symptoms, making them better indices of familial liability to schizophrenia.

Schizophrenia polygenic risk score in psychosis proneness.

Schizophrenia (SZ) is a complex disorder with a highly polygenic inheritance. It can be conceived as the extreme expression of a continuum of traits that are present in the general population often broadly referred to as schizotypy. However, it is still poorly understood how these traits overlap genetically with the disorder. We investigated whether polygenic risk for SZ is associated with these disorder-related phenotypes (schizotypy, psychotic-like experiences, and subclinical psychopathology) in a sample of 253 non-clinically identified participants. Polygenic risk scores (PRSs) were constructed based on the latest SZ genome-wide association study using the PRS-CS method. Their association with self-report and interview measures of SZ-related traits was tested. No association with either schizotypy or psychotic-like experiences was found. However, we identified a significant association with the Motor Change subscale of the Comprehensive Assessment of At-Risk Mental States (CAARMS) interview. Our results indicate that the genetic overlap of SZ with schizotypy and psychotic-like experiences is less robust than previously hypothesized. The relationship between high PRS for SZ and motor abnormalities could reflect neurodevelopmental processes associated with psychosis proneness and SZ.

A pilot randomized controlled trial comparing a novel compassion and metacognition approach for schizotypal personality disorder with a combination of cognitive therapy and psychopharmacological treatment.

BACKGROUND: Schizotypal personality disorder is characterized by a pervasive pattern of maladaptive behavior that has been associated with the liability for schizophrenia. Little is known about effective psychosocial interventions. This pilot non-inferiority randomized controlled trial aimed to compare a novel form of psychotherapy tailored for this disorder and a combination of cognitive therapy and psychopharmacological treatment. The former treatment - namely, Evolutionary Systems Therapy for Schizotypy-integrated evolutionary, metacognitively oriented, and compassion focused approaches. METHODS: Thirty-three participants were assessed for eligibility, twenty-four randomized on a 1:1 ratio, nineteen included in the final analysis. The treatments lasted 6 months (24 sessions). The primary outcome was change across nine measurements in personality pathology, the secondary outcomes were remission from diagnosis and pre-post changes in general symptomatology and metacognition. RESULTS: Primary outcome suggested a non-inferiority of the experimental treatment in respect to control condition. Secondary outcomes reported mixed results. There was no significant difference in terms of remission, but experimental treatment showed a larger reduction of general symptomatology (η2 = 0.558) and a larger increase in metacognition (η2 = 0.734). CONCLUSIONS: This pilot study reported promising results about the effectiveness of the proposed novel approach. A confirmatory trial on large sample size is needed to provide evidence about relative effectiveness of the two treatment conditions. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov; NCT04764708; Registration day 21/02/2021.

Schizotypal traits in a large sample of high-school and university students from Tunisia: correlates and measurement invariance of the arabic schizotypal personality questionnaire across age and sex.

BACKGROUND: The main goal of the present study was to examine the characteristics of schizotypal traits and their correlations with genetic (i.e., family history of mental illness), demographic (i.e., age, sex), environmental (e.g., income, urbanicity, tobacco/alcohol/cannabis use), and psychological (i.e., personal history of mental illness other than psychosis) factors in Tunisian high-school and university students. Our secondary goal was to contribute the literature by examining the factor structure and factorial invariance of the Arabic Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ) across sex and age (adolescents [12-18 years] vs. young adults [18-35 years]) groups. METHOD: This was a cross-sectional study involving 3166 students: 1160 (36.6%) high-school students (53.0% females, aged 14.9 ± 1.8); and 2006 (63.4%) university students (63.9% females, aged 21.8 ± 2.3). All students were asked to complete a paper-and-pencil self-administered questionnaire containing sociodemographic characteristics as well as the Arabic version of the SPQ. RESULTS: The total sample yielded total SPQ scores of 24.1 ± 16.6 out of 74. The SPQ yielded good composite reliability as attested by McDonald's omega values ranging from .68 to .80 for all nine subscales. Confirmatory Factor Analysis indicated that fit of the 9-factor model of SPQ scores was acceptable. This model is invariant (at the configural, metric and structural levels) across sex and age. Except for "Odd or eccentric behavior", all schizotypy features were significantly higher among female students compared to males. Multivariable analyses showed that female sex, being a university student, lowest family incomes, tobacco use, and having a personal history of psychiatric illness were significantly associated with higher positive, negative and disorganized schizotypy subscales scores. CONCLUSION: Future research still needs to confirm our findings and investigate the contribution of the identified factors in the development of clinical psychosis. We can also conclude that the Arabic SPQ is appropriate for measuring and comparing schizotypy across age and sex in clinical and research settings. These findings are highly relevant and essential for ensuring the clinical utility and applicability of the SPQ in cross-cultural research.

The relationship between technology addictions and schizotypal traits: mediating roles of depression, anxiety, and stress.

BACKGROUND: The way how technology addiction relates to psychosis remains inconclusive and uncertain. The present study aimed to test the hypothesis of a mediating role of depression, anxiety and stress in the association between three technology (behavioral) addictions (i.e., Addiction to the Internet, smartphones and Facebook) and psychosis proneness as estimated through schizotypal traits in emerging adults. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was performed among non-clinical Tunisian university students (67.6% females, mean age of 21.5 ± 2.5 years) using a paper-and-pencil self-administered questionnaire. RESULTS: Results for the Pearson correlation revealed that higher smartphone, Internet, and Facebook addictions' scores were significantly and positively correlated with each of the depression, anxiety and stress subscores; whereas depression (r = 0.474), anxiety (r = 0.499) and stress (r = 0.461) scores were positively correlated with higher schizotypal traits. The results of the mediation analysis found a significant mediating effect for depressive, anxiety and stress symptoms on the cross-sectional relationship between each facet of the TA and schizotypal traits. CONCLUSION: Our findings preliminarily suggest that an addictive use of smartphones, Internet and Facebook may act as a stressor that exacerbates psychosis proneness directly or indirectly through distress. Although future longitudinal research is needed to determine causality, we draw attention to the possibility that treating psychological distress may constitute an effective target of interventions to prevent psychosis in adolescents with technology addictions.

Pathways from developmental vulnerabilities in early childhood to schizotypy in middle childhood.

OBJECTIVES: Childhood disturbances in social, emotional, language, motor and cognitive functioning, and schizotypy have each been implicated as precursors of schizophrenia-spectrum disorders. We investigated whether relationships between early childhood developmental vulnerabilities and childhood schizotypy are mediated by educational underachievement in middle childhood. METHODS: Participants were members of a large Australian (n = 19,216) population cohort followed longitudinally. Path analyses were used to model relationships between developmental vulnerabilities at age ~5 years, educational underachievement from ages ~8 to 10 years and three distinct profiles of schizotypy at age ~11 years (true, introverted and affective schizotypy). RESULTS: Early childhood developmental vulnerabilities on five broad domains (related to physical, emotional, social, cognitive and communication development) were associated with schizotypy profiles in middle childhood. Educational underachievement in middle childhood was associated with all schizotypy profiles, but most strongly with the true schizotypy profile (OR = 3.92, 95% CI = 3.12, 4.91). The relationships between schizotypy profiles and early childhood developmental vulnerabilities in 'language and cognitive skills (school-based)' and 'communication skills and general knowledge' domains were fully mediated by educational underachievement in middle childhood, and the relationships with early childhood 'physical health and well-being' and 'emotional maturity' domains were partially mediated. CONCLUSION: Developmental continuity from early childhood developmental vulnerabilities to schizotypy in middle childhood is mediated by educational underachievement in middle childhood. While some domains of early developmental functioning showed differential relationships with distinct schizotypy profiles, these findings support a developmental pathway to schizotypy in which cognitive vulnerability operates from early childhood through to middle childhood.

Spontaneous perspective-taking and its relation to schizotypy.

INTRODUCTION: Patients with schizophrenia differ from healthy controls in the extent that they spontaneously take another's perspective. For such effects, it is difficult to separate the influence of schizophrenia from multiple potential confounders. Here, for the first time, associations between spontaneous perspective-taking and schizotypy were investigated in a nonclinical population. METHODS: Adult participants completed both a Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ-BRU) and a novel online adaptation of a visual perspective-taking task that required participants to make judgements both from their own perspective and that of a human avatar. RESULTS: Response times were elevated when the avatar's perspective was inconsistent with that of the participant, providing evidence of spontaneous perspective-taking. This demonstrates that the visual perspective-taking task can be successfully implemented in an online format. However, schizotypy did not predict these spontaneous perspective-taking effects. CONCLUSIONS: Unlike explicit mentalising, this form of implicit mentalising is not affected by nonclinical manifestations of schizotypy traits. This implies that impairment of general neurocognitive function contributes to altered spontaneous perspective-taking in schizophrenia. A novel account based on the cognitive control processes involved in perspective selection and the role of attention in perspective calculation reconciles apparently contradictory findings of earlier studies comparing patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls.

A comparative study of theory of mind in taxon-like clusters of psychometric schizotypes and individuals at genetic risk for schizophrenia.

Introduction: Clinical and family studies suggest that alterations of theory of mind (ToM) represent a marker of genetic liability to schizophrenia. Findings regarding ToM in schizotypy are less consistent. The study aimed to explore whether this might be due to an insufficient account of the heterogeneity of schizotypy in prior research and/or the fact that in psychometric schizotypy ToM alterations could manifest as subtle peculiarities rather than overt errors of mentalising.Methods: Individuals without a family history of psychosis (n = 150) were assigned to low, positive, negative, and high mixed schizotypy classes based on a cluster analysis of 1322 subjects who completed the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire. The classes were compared on their performance of faux pas tasks with 77 adult first-degree relatives of schizophrenia patients, who represent individuals at genetic risk for schizophrenia. Besides overt errors, subtle alterations in ToM were analysed using expert judgment.Results: The relatives tended to make overt errors and demonstrated specific features of intentional reasoning. None of the schizotypal classes showed similar trends.Conclusions: The results complement the literature on the subjective-objective disjunction in psychometric schizotypes and did not provide evidence that ToM anomalies are a marker of genetic liability to schizophrenia in this cohort.

Examining Cognitive Biases Uniquely Associated with Schizotypy.

INTRODUCTION: Individuals with schizotypy can experience a number of cognitive biases that may increase their risk in developing schizophrenia-spectrum psychopathology. However, cognitive biases are also present in mood and anxiety disorders, and it is currently unclear which biases are specific to schizotypy and which may be a result of comorbid depression and/or anxiety. METHODS: 462 participants completed measures of depression, anxiety, cognitive biases, cognitive schemas, and schizotypy. Correlation analyses were conducted to examine the relationship between these constructs. Three hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to examine if schizotypy, depression, and anxiety explained a statistically significant amount of variance in cognitive biases after controlling for depression and anxiety, schizotypy and anxiety, and schizotypy and depression, respectively. Moderated regression analyses were also conducted to investigate the moderating role of biological sex and ethnicity in the association between cognitive biases and schizotypy. RESULTS: Self-referential processing, belief inflexibility, and attention for threat were associated with schizotypy. The belief inflexibility bias and social cognition problems were specifically associated with schizotypy after controlling for depression and anxiety and were not directly associated with either depression or anxiety. These associations were not moderated by biological sex or ethnicity. CONCLUSION: The belief inflexibility bias may be an important cognitive bias underlying schizotypal personality, and further research will be important to determine whether this bias is also associated with an increased likelihood of transitioning to psychosis.