Super-enhancers include classical enhancers and facilitators to fully activate gene expression.

Super-enhancers are compound regulatory elements that control expression of key cell identity genes. They recruit high levels of tissue-specific transcription factors and co-activators such as the Mediator complex and contact target gene promoters with high frequency. Most super-enhancers contain multiple constituent regulatory elements, but it is unclear whether these elements have distinct roles in activating target gene expression. Here, by rebuilding the endogenous multipartite α-globin super-enhancer, we show that it contains bioinformatically equivalent but functionally distinct element types: classical enhancers and facilitator elements. Facilitators have no intrinsic enhancer activity, yet in their absence, classical enhancers are unable to fully upregulate their target genes. Without facilitators, classical enhancers exhibit reduced Mediator recruitment, enhancer RNA transcription, and enhancer-promoter interactions. Facilitators are interchangeable but display functional hierarchy based on their position within a multipartite enhancer. Facilitators thus play an important role in potentiating the activity of classical enhancers and ensuring robust activation of target genes.

Evolutionary assembly of cooperating cell types in an animal chemical defense system.

How the functions of multicellular organs emerge from the underlying evolution of cell types is poorly understood. We deconstructed evolution of an organ novelty: a rove beetle gland that secretes a defensive cocktail. We show how gland function arose via assembly of two cell types that manufacture distinct compounds. One cell type, comprising a chemical reservoir within the abdomen, produces alkane and ester compounds. We demonstrate that this cell type is a hybrid of cuticle cells and ancient pheromone and adipocyte-like cells, executing its function via a mosaic of enzymes from each parental cell type. The second cell type synthesizes benzoquinones using a chimera of conserved cellular energy and cuticle formation pathways. We show that evolution of each cell type was shaped by coevolution between the two cell types, yielding a potent secretion that confers adaptive value. Our findings illustrate how cooperation between cell types arises, generating new, organ-level behaviors.

Motor Cooperation During Mitosis and Ciliogenesis.

Cilia and mitotic spindles are microtubule (MT)-based, macromolecular machines that consecutively assemble and disassemble during interphase and M phase of the cell cycle, respectively, and play fundamental roles in how eukaryotic cells swim through a fluid, sense their environment, and divide to reproduce themselves. The formation and function of these structures depend on several types of cytoskeletal motors, notably MT-based kinesins and dyneins, supplemented by actin-based myosins, which may function independently or collaboratively during specific steps in the pathway of mitosis or ciliogenesis. System-specific differences in these pathways occur because, instead of conforming to a simple one motor-one function rule, ciliary and mitotic motors can be deployed differently by different cell types. This reflects the well-known influence of natural selection on basic molecular processes, creating diversity at subcellular scales. Here we review our current understanding of motor function and cooperation during the assembly-disassembly, maintenance, and functions of cilia and mitotic spindles.

A New Infectious Unit: Extracellular Vesicles Carrying Virus Populations.

Viral egress and transmission have long been described to take place through single free virus particles. However, viruses can also shed into the environment and transmit as populations clustered inside extracellular vesicles (EVs), a process we had first called vesicle-mediated en bloc transmission. These membrane-cloaked virus clusters can originate from a variety of cellular organelles including autophagosomes, plasma membrane, and multivesicular bodies. Their viral cargo can be multiples of nonenveloped or enveloped virus particles or even naked infectious genomes, but egress is always nonlytic, with the cell remaining intact. Here we put forth the thesis that EV-cloaked viral clusters are a distinct form of infectious unit as compared to free single viruses (nonenveloped or enveloped) or even free virus aggregates. We discuss how efficient and prevalent these infectious EVs are in the context of virus-associated diseases and highlight the importance of their proper detection and disinfection for public health.

Bacteriophage Cooperation Suppresses CRISPR-Cas3 and Cas9 Immunity.

Bacteria utilize CRISPR-Cas adaptive immune systems for protection from bacteriophages (phages), and some phages produce anti-CRISPR (Acr) proteins that inhibit immune function. Despite thorough mechanistic and structural information for some Acr proteins, how they are deployed and utilized by a phage during infection is unknown. Here, we show that Acr production does not guarantee phage replication when faced with CRISPR-Cas immunity, but instead, infections fail when phage population numbers fall below a critical threshold. Infections succeed only if a sufficient Acr dose is contributed to a single cell by multiple phage genomes. The production of Acr proteins by phage genomes that fail to replicate leave the cell immunosuppressed, which predisposes the cell for successful infection by other phages in the population. This altruistic mechanism for CRISPR-Cas inhibition demonstrates inter-virus cooperation that may also manifest in other host-parasite interactions.

Myc Cooperates with Ras by Programming Inflammation and Immune Suppression.

The two oncogenes KRas and Myc cooperate to drive tumorigenesis, but the mechanism underlying this remains unclear. In a mouse lung model of KRasG12D-driven adenomas, we find that co-activation of Myc drives the immediate transition to highly proliferative and invasive adenocarcinomas marked by highly inflammatory, angiogenic, and immune-suppressed stroma. We identify epithelial-derived signaling molecules CCL9 and IL-23 as the principal instructing signals for stromal reprogramming. CCL9 mediates recruitment of macrophages, angiogenesis, and PD-L1-dependent expulsion of T and B cells. IL-23 orchestrates exclusion of adaptive T and B cells and innate immune NK cells. Co-blockade of both CCL9 and IL-23 abrogates Myc-induced tumor progression. Subsequent deactivation of Myc in established adenocarcinomas triggers immediate reversal of all stromal changes and tumor regression, which are independent of CD4+CD8+ T cells but substantially dependent on returning NK cells. We show that Myc extensively programs an immune suppressive stroma that is obligatory for tumor progression.

Cis interactions in the Irf8 locus regulate stage-dependent enhancer activation.

Individual elements within a superenhancer can act in a cooperative or temporal manner, but the underlying mechanisms remain obscure. We recently identified an Irf8 superenhancer, within which different elements act at distinct stages of type 1 classical dendritic cell (cDC1) development. The +41-kb Irf8 enhancer is required for pre-cDC1 specification, while the +32-kb Irf8 enhancer acts to support subsequent cDC1 maturation. Here, we found that compound heterozygous Δ32/Δ41 mice, lacking the +32- and +41-kb enhancers on different chromosomes, show normal pre-cDC1 specification but, surprisingly, completely lack mature cDC1 development, suggesting cis dependence of the +32-kb enhancer on the +41-kb enhancer. Transcription of the +32-kb Irf8 enhancer-associated long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) Gm39266 is also dependent on the +41-kb enhancer. However, cDC1 development in mice remained intact when Gm39266 transcripts were eliminated by CRISPR/Cas9-mediated deletion of lncRNA promoters and when transcription across the +32-kb enhancer was blocked by premature polyadenylation. We showed that chromatin accessibility and BATF3 binding at the +32-kb enhancer were dependent on a functional +41-kb enhancer located in cis Thus, the +41-kb Irf8 enhancer controls the subsequent activation of the +32-kb Irf8 enhancer in a manner that is independent of associated lncRNA transcription.

The evolution of autonomy from two cooperative specialists in fluctuating environments.

From microbes to humans, organisms perform numerous tasks for their survival, including food acquisition, migration, and reproduction. A complex biological task can be performed by either an autonomous organism or by cooperation among several specialized organisms. However, it remains unclear how autonomy and cooperation evolutionarily switch. Specifically, it remains unclear whether and how cooperative specialists can repair deleted genes through direct genetic exchange, thereby regaining metabolic autonomy. Here, we address this question by experimentally evolving a mutualistic microbial consortium composed of two specialists that cooperatively degrade naphthalene. We observed that autonomous genotypes capable of performing the entire naphthalene degradation pathway evolved from two cooperative specialists and dominated the community. This evolutionary transition was driven by the horizontal gene transfer (HGT) between the two specialists. However, this evolution was exclusively observed in the fluctuating environment alternately supplied with naphthalene and pyruvate, where mutualism and competition between the two specialists alternated. The naphthalene-supplied environment exerted selective pressure that favors the expansion of autonomous genotypes. The pyruvate-supplied environment promoted the coexistence and cell density of the cooperative specialists, thereby increasing the likelihood of HGT. Using a mathematical model, we quantitatively demonstrate that environmental fluctuations facilitate the evolution of autonomy through HGT when the relative growth rate and carrying capacity of the cooperative specialists allow enhanced coexistence and higher cell density in the competitive environment. Together, our results demonstrate that cooperative specialists can repair deleted genes through a direct genetic exchange under specific conditions, thereby regaining metabolic autonomy.

Abundant resources can trigger reduced consumption: Unveiling the paradox of excessive scrounging.

In ecological contexts, it is conventionally expected that increased food availability would boost consumption, particularly when animals prioritize maximizing their food intake. This paper challenges this conventional wisdom by conducting an in-depth game-theoretic analysis of a basic foraging model, in which animals must choose between intensive food searching as producers or moderate searching while relying on group members as scroungers. Our study reveals that, under certain circumstances, increasing food availability can amplify the inclination to scrounge to such an extent that it leads to a reduction in animals' food consumption compared to scenarios with limited food availability. We further illustrate a similar phenomenon in a model capturing free-riding dynamics among workers in a company. We demonstrate that, under certain reward mechanisms, enhancing workers' production capacities can inadvertently trigger a surge in free-riding behavior, leading to both diminished group productivity and reduced individual payoffs. Our findings provide intriguing insights into the complex relationships between individual and group performances, as well as the intricate mechanisms underlying the emergence of free-riding behavior in competitive environments.

Callousness, exploitativeness, and tracking of cooperation incentives in the human default network.

Human cognitive capacities that enable flexible cooperation may have evolved in parallel with the expansion of frontoparietal cortical networks, particularly the default network. Conversely, human antisocial behavior and trait antagonism are broadly associated with reduced activity, impaired connectivity, and altered structure of the default network. Yet, behaviors like interpersonal manipulation and exploitation may require intact or even superior social cognition. Using a reinforcement learning model of decision-making on a modified trust game, we examined how individuals adjusted their cooperation rate based on a counterpart's cooperation and social reputation. We observed that learning signals in the default network updated the predicted utility of cooperation or defection and scaled with reciprocal cooperation. These signals were weaker in callous (vs. compassionate) individuals but stronger in those who were more exploitative (vs. honest and humble). Further, they accounted for associations between exploitativeness, callousness, and reciprocal cooperation. Separately, behavioral sensitivity to prior reputation was reduced in callous but not exploitative individuals and selectively scaled with responses of the medial temporal subsystem of the default network. Overall, callousness was characterized by blunted behavioral and default network sensitivity to cooperation incentives. Exploitativeness predicted heightened sensitivity to others' cooperation but not social reputation. We speculate that both compassion and exploitativeness may reflect cognitive adaptations to social living, enabled by expansion of the default network in anthropogenesis.

The evolution of social behaviors and risk preferences in settings with uncertainty.

Humans update their social behavior in response to past experiences and changing environments. Behavioral decisions are further complicated by uncertainty in the outcome of social interactions. Faced with uncertainty, some individuals exhibit risk aversion while others seek risk. Attitudes toward risk may depend on socioeconomic status; and individuals may update their risk preferences over time, which will feedback on their social behavior. Here, we study how uncertainty and risk preferences shape the evolution of social behaviors. We extend the game-theoretic framework for behavioral evolution to incorporate uncertainty about payoffs and variation in how individuals respond to this uncertainty. We find that different attitudes toward risk can substantially alter behavior and long-term outcomes, as individuals seek to optimize their rewards from social interactions. In a standard setting without risk, for example, defection always overtakes a well-mixed population engaged in the classic Prisoner's Dilemma, whereas risk aversion can reverse the direction of evolution, promoting cooperation over defection. When individuals update their risk preferences along with their strategic behaviors, a population can oscillate between periods dominated by risk-averse cooperators and periods of risk-seeking defectors. Our analysis provides a systematic account of how risk preferences modulate, and even coevolve with, behavior in an uncertain social world.

Eviction-driven infanticide and sexually selected adoption and infanticide in a neotropical parrot.

Infanticide and adoption have been attributed to sexual selection, where an individual later reproduces with the parent whose offspring it killed or adopted. While sexually selected infanticide is well known, evidence for sexually selected adoption is anecdotal. We report on both behaviors at 346 nests over 27 y in green-rumped parrotlets (Forpus passerinus) in Venezuela. Parrotlets are monogamous with long-term pair bonds, exhibit a strongly male-biased adult sex ratio, and nest in cavities that are in short supply, creating intense competition for nest sites and mates. Infanticide attacks occurred at 256 nests in two distinct contexts: 1) Attacks were primarily committed by nonbreeding pairs (69%) attempting to evict parents from the cavity. Infanticide attacks per nest were positively correlated with population size and evicting pairs never adopted abandoned offspring. Competition for limited nest sites was a primary cause of eviction-driven infanticide, and 2) attacks occurred less frequently at nests where one mate died (31%), was perpetrated primarily by stepparents of both sexes, and was independent of population size. Thus, within a single species and mating system, infanticide occurred in multiple contexts due to multiple drivers. Nevertheless, 48% of stepparents of both sexes adopted offspring, and another 23% of stepfathers exhibited both infanticide and long-term care. Stepfathers were often young males who subsequently nested with widows, reaching earlier ages of first breeding than competitors and demonstrating sexually selected adoption. Adoption and infanticide conferred similar fitness benefits to stepfathers and appeared to be equivalent strategies driven by limited breeding opportunities, male-biased sex ratios, and long-term monogamy.

Indirect reciprocity undermines indirect reciprocity destabilizing large-scale cooperation.

Previous models suggest that indirect reciprocity (reputation) can stabilize large-scale human cooperation [K. Panchanathan, R. Boyd, Nature 432, 499-502 (2004)]. The logic behind these models and experiments [J. Gross et al., Sci. Adv. 9, eadd8289 (2023) and O. P. Hauser, A. Hendriks, D. G. Rand, M. A. Nowak, Sci. Rep. 6, 36079 (2016)] is that a strategy in which individuals conditionally aid others based on their reputation for engaging in costly cooperative behavior serves as a punishment that incentivizes large-scale cooperation without the second-order free-rider problem. However, these models and experiments fail to account for individuals belonging to multiple groups with reputations that can be in conflict. Here, we extend these models such that individuals belong to a smaller, "local" group embedded within a larger, "global" group. This introduces competing strategies for conditionally aiding others based on their cooperative behavior in the local or global group. Our analyses reveal that the reputation for cooperation in the smaller local group can undermine cooperation in the larger global group, even when the theoretical maximum payoffs are higher in the larger global group. This model reveals that indirect reciprocity alone is insufficient for stabilizing large-scale human cooperation because cooperation at one scale can be considered defection at another. These results deepen the puzzle of large-scale human cooperation.

Cell-cell transfer of adaptation traits benefits kin and actor in a cooperative microbe.

Microbes face many physical, chemical, and biological insults from their environments. In response, cells adapt, but whether they do so cooperatively is poorly understood. Here, we use a model social bacterium, Myxococcus xanthus, to ask whether adapted traits are transferable to naïve kin. To do so we isolated cells adapted to detergent stresses and tested for trait transfer. In some cases, strain-mixing experiments increased sibling fitness by transferring adaptation traits. This cooperative behavior depended on a kin recognition system called outer membrane exchange (OME) because mutants defective in OME could not transfer adaptation traits. Strikingly, in mixed stressed populations, the transferred trait also benefited the adapted (actor) cells. This apparently occurred by alleviating a detergent-induced stress response in kin that otherwise killed actor cells. Additionally, this adaptation trait when transferred also conferred resistance against a lipoprotein toxin delivered to targeted kin. Based on these and other findings, we propose a model for stress adaptation and how OME in myxobacteria promotes cellular cooperation in response to environmental stresses.

Increasing benefits in one-time public goods does not promote cooperation.

The long tradition of research on cooperation includes a well-established finding that individuals respond to the degree of conflict between self- and collective interests (that is, the relative benefits from cooperation) in providing public goods. Existing empirical evidence builds upon settings where participants make multiple decisions or strategically consider alternative scenarios. Here, we consider a decision setting where participants face a one-time (single-decision) setting. One-time cooperative encounters often occur in volunteering or donating to immediate needs for crisis relief. For these distinct and highly relevant settings, we report a lack of responsiveness to increases in cooperation benefits, thereby highlighting limits to our understanding of the determinants of one-time cooperation encounters. Across two studies, n = 2,232 individuals participate in treatments where we vary across participants the relative benefit from contributing to a public good (that is, the marginal per capita return, the MPCR). We examine decisions from alternative participant pools (UK general population vs. students), implementations varying the physical distance between participants (online vs. in the laboratory), and more complex decision settings considering group-to-group interactions including not only providers but also donors to public goods. Throughout, neither average contribution levels, nor the distribution of contributions are significantly affected by the increases in cooperation benefits. The mechanism behind these results can be explained by the close correlation between expectations of other's cooperation and own cooperation, and the fact that these expectations do not increase with higher benefits from cooperation.

Efficiency and resilience of cooperation in asymmetric social dilemmas.

Direct reciprocity is a powerful mechanism for cooperation in social dilemmas. The very logic of reciprocity, however, seems to require that individuals are symmetric, and that everyone has the same means to influence each others' payoffs. Yet in many applications, individuals are asymmetric. Herein, we study the effect of asymmetry in linear public good games. Individuals may differ in their endowments (their ability to contribute to a public good) and in their productivities (how effective their contributions are). Given the individuals' productivities, we ask which allocation of endowments is optimal for cooperation. To this end, we consider two notions of optimality. The first notion focuses on the resilience of cooperation. The respective endowment distribution ensures that full cooperation is feasible even under the most adverse conditions. The second notion focuses on efficiency. The corresponding endowment distribution maximizes group welfare. Using analytical methods, we fully characterize these two endowment distributions. This analysis reveals that both optimality notions favor some endowment inequality: More productive players ought to get higher endowments. Yet the two notions disagree on how unequal endowments are supposed to be. A focus on resilience results in less inequality. With additional simulations, we show that the optimal endowment allocation needs to account for both the resilience and the efficiency of cooperation.

Computational evolution of social norms in well-mixed and group-structured populations.

Models of indirect reciprocity study how social norms promote cooperation. In these models, cooperative individuals build up a positive reputation, which in turn helps them in their future interactions. The exact reputational benefits of cooperation depend on the norm in place, which may change over time. Previous research focused on the stability of social norms. Much less is known about how social norms initially evolve when competing with many others. A comprehensive evolutionary analysis, however, has been difficult. Even among the comparably simple space of so-called third-order norms, there are thousands of possibilities, each one inducing its own reputation dynamics. To address this challenge, we use large-scale computer simulations. We study the reputation dynamics of each third-order norm and all evolutionary transitions between them. In contrast to established work with only a handful of norms, we find that cooperation is hard to maintain in well-mixed populations. However, within group-structured populations, cooperation can emerge. The most successful norm in our simulations is particularly simple. It regards cooperation as universally positive, and defection as usually negative-unless defection takes the form of justified punishment. This research sheds light on the complex interplay of social norms, their induced reputation dynamics, and population structure.

Explaining the evolution of gossip.

Gossip, the exchange of personal information about absent third parties, is ubiquitous in human societies. However, the evolution of gossip remains a puzzle. The current article proposes an evolutionary cycle of gossip and uses an agent-based evolutionary game-theoretic model to assess it. We argue that the evolution of gossip is the joint consequence of its reputation dissemination and selfishness deterrence functions. Specifically, the dissemination of information about individuals' reputations leads more individuals to condition their behavior on others' reputations. This induces individuals to behave more cooperatively toward gossipers in order to improve their reputations. As a result, gossiping has an evolutionary advantage that leads to its proliferation. The evolution of gossip further facilitates these two functions of gossip and sustains the evolutionary cycle.

CD8+ T Cells Orchestrate pDC-XCR1+ Dendritic Cell Spatial and Functional Cooperativity to Optimize Priming.

Adaptive cellular immunity is initiated by antigen-specific interactions between T lymphocytes and dendritic cells (DCs). Plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs) support antiviral immunity by linking innate and adaptive immune responses. Here we examined pDC spatiotemporal dynamics during viral infection to uncover when, where, and how they exert their functions. We found that pDCs accumulated at sites of CD8+ T cell antigen-driven activation in a CCR5-dependent fashion. Furthermore, activated CD8+ T cells orchestrated the local recruitment of lymph node-resident XCR1 chemokine receptor-expressing DCs via secretion of the XCL1 chemokine. Functionally, this CD8+ T cell-mediated reorganization of the local DC network allowed for the interaction and cooperation of pDCs and XCR1+ DCs, thereby optimizing XCR1+ DC maturation and cross-presentation. These data support a model in which CD8+ T cells upon activation create their own optimal priming microenvironment by recruiting additional DC subsets to the site of initial antigen recognition.

Breakdown of clonal cooperative architecture in multispecies biofilms and the spatial ecology of predation.

Biofilm formation, including adherence to surfaces and secretion of extracellular matrix, is common in the microbial world, but we often do not know how interaction at the cellular spatial scale translates to higher-order biofilm community ecology. Here we explore an especially understudied element of biofilm ecology, namely predation by the bacterium Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus. This predator can kill and consume many different Gram-negative bacteria, including Vibrio cholerae and Escherichia coli. V. cholerae can protect itself from predation within densely packed biofilm structures that it creates, whereas E. coli biofilms are highly susceptible to B. bacteriovorus. We explore how predator-prey dynamics change when V. cholerae and E. coli are growing in biofilms together. We find that in dual-species prey biofilms, E. coli survival under B. bacteriovorus predation increases, whereas V. cholerae survival decreases. E. coli benefits from predator protection when it becomes embedded within expanding groups of highly packed V. cholerae. But we also find that the ordered, highly packed, and clonal biofilm structure of V. cholerae can be disrupted if V. cholerae cells are directly adjacent to E. coli cells at the start of biofilm growth. When this occurs, the two species become intermixed, and the resulting disordered cell groups do not block predator entry. Because biofilm cell group structure depends on initial cell distributions at the start of prey biofilm growth, the surface colonization dynamics have a dramatic impact on the eventual multispecies biofilm architecture, which in turn determines to what extent both species survive exposure to B. bacteriovorus.