The multiple roles of trichomes in two Croton species.

Trichomes are common in plants from dry environments, and despite their recognized role in protection and defense, little is known about their role as absorptive structures and in other aspects of leaf ecophysiology. We combine anatomical and ecophysiological data to evaluate how trichomes affect leaf gas exchange and water balance during drought. We studied two congeneric species with pubescent leaves which co-occur in Brazilian Caatinga: Croton blanchetianus (dense trichomes) and Croton adenocalyx (sparse trichomes). We found a novel foliar water uptake (FWU) pathway in C. blanchetianus composed of stellate trichomes and underlying epidermal cells and sclereids that interconnect the trichomes from both leaf surfaces. The water absorbed by these trichomes is redistributed laterally by pectin protuberances on mesophyll cell walls. This mechanism enables C. blanchetianus leaves to absorb water more efficiently than C. adenocalyx. Consequently, the exposure of C. blanchetianus to dew during drought improved its leaf gas exchange and water status more than C. adenocalyx. C. blanchetianus trichomes also increase their leaf capacity to reflect light and maintain lower temperatures during drought. Our results emphasize the multiple roles that trichomes might have on plant functioning and the importance of FWU for the ecophysiology of Caatinga plants during drought.

Deep Eutectic Solvents-Based Ultrasonic-Assisted Dispersive Liquid-Liquid Microextraction for the Determination of Organophosphorus Pesticides in Honeysuckle Dew Samples.

A deep eutectic solvent (DES) with the ability to change from hydrophilic to hydrophobic was designed and synthesized and applied to the determination of organophosphorus (OPP) pesticides in honeysuckle dew samples. Choline chloride, phenol, and tetrahydrofuran (THF) were used as the hydrogen bond acceptor, hydrogen bond donor, and demulsifier, respectively. Eight OPP pesticides were extracted by DES coupled with ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UA) and then chromatographed by GC-MS. DES used as an extract solvent has the advantages of high extraction efficiency, low cost, and environmental protection. Furthermore, DES is compatible with GC-MS. The single factor experiment design and Box-Behnken design (BBD) were applied to the optimization of experimental factors, including the type and composition of extraction solvent, type of demulsifier solvent, the volume of DES and THF, pH of sample solution, and ultrasonic time. Under the optimum experimental conditions, the high degree of linearity from 0.1 to 20.0 ng mL-1 (R2 ≥ 0.9989), the limits of detection from 0.014 to 0.051 ng mL-1 (S/N = 3), and the recoveries of analytes from 81.4 to 104.4% with relative standard deviation below 8.6%. In addition, the adsorption mechanism of OPPs on DES was explored by adsorption kinetic studies. These results have demonstrated that the present method has offered an effective, accurate, and sensitive methodology for OPP pesticides in honeysuckle dew samples, and this method provides a reference for the detection of pesticide residues in traditional Chinese medicine.

The effect of the water source on niche partioning of chlorolichens and cyanobacteria-implications for resilience?

MAIN CONCLUSION: Microclimate determines lichens and cyanobacteria distribution in the Negev, with lichens and cyanobacteria inhabit dewy and dewless habitats, respectively. Lichens experiences more frequent and extensive environmental fluctuations than cyanobacteria. The spatial partitioning of chlorolichens (eukaryotes) and cyanobacteria (prokaryotes) are intriguing, especially following recent intense search for extraterrestrial life. This is especially relevant for deserts, where both lithobionts are thought to use rain and dew but may differ in their resilience to environmental extremes and fluctuations. Following the different spatial distribution of lithobionts in a south-facing slope of the Negev Highlands (with cyanobacteria-inhabiting rocks and chlorolichen-inhabiting cobbles), measurements of temperature, non-rainfall water (NRW) and biomass were carried out within the drainage basin aiming to test the hypotheses that (i) cobble-inhabiting lichens may access more water (through NRW) and may be subjected to more extensive environmental fluctuations of temperature and water than bedrock-inhabiting cyanobacteria, and (ii) will therefore have a greater contribution to the ecosystem productivity. In contrast to cyanobacteria, cobble-inhabiting chlorolichens were found to access NRW (up to 0.20 mm of daily amounts in comparison to < 0.04 mm of the cyanobacteria) and to experience higher fluctuations of temperatures (up to 4.1 °C higher and 5.3 °C lower). With lichens and cyanobacteria inhabiting dewy and dewless habitats, respectively, NRW was found responsible for contributing 6.8-fold higher organic carbon to the lithobiontic community. At this site, chlorolichens experience more extensive environmental fluctuations than cyanobacteria, possibly indicating a higher tolerance for environmental fluctuations. These observations may assist in the interpretation of the abiotic conditions responsible for past or present lithobiontic life on Mars.

Populus euphratica counteracts drought stress through the dew coupling and root hydraulic redistribution processes.

BACKGROUND: In arid and semi-arid areas, plants can directly absorb and use dew through their leaves, and some plants have the ability for hydraulic redistribution of their roots. Therefore, in arid areas, plants may redistribute dew to the soil, using the soil as a reservoir for short-term dry seasons, i.e. dew may participate in the hydraulic redistribution process of plants. This process plays an important role in plant survival and community stability. METHODS: To verify this hypothesis, we investigated the water use mechanism of Populus euphratica through a comprehensive observation of sap flow, water potential and soil water content using a heavy water tracer experiment under in situ field conditions. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: Dewdrops contributed 28.3 % of soil moisture near the roots, and applying dew on leaves for several days significantly improved soil moisture status. Hydraulic redistribution in the roots mainly occurred from 2200 h at night to 800 h the following day and mainly occurred in the 20- to 80-cm soil layer. Water storage in the trunk is the intermediate link in the coupling process of foliar water uptake and hydraulic redistribution; water storage in the trunk is mainly replenished from May to July and consumed throughout the rest of the year. In conclusion, dew redistributes water into soil through the coupling process of foliar water uptake and hydraulic redistribution. Populus euphratica uses the trunk and soil for water storage to cope with water stress during short-term drought periods. Our findings provide a scientific basis for the restoration of different species in water-deficient areas, which is conducive to maintaining vegetation ecosystem stability in areas of desertification and improving the soil water balance.

A Dew-Condensation Sensor Exploiting Local Variations in the Relative Refractive Index on the Dew-Friendly Surface of a Waveguide.

We propose a sensor technology for detecting dew condensation, which exploits a variation in the relative refractive index on the dew-friendly surface of an optical waveguide. The dew-condensation sensor is composed of a laser, waveguide, medium (i.e., filling material for the waveguide), and photodiode. The formation of dewdrops on the waveguide surface causes local increases in the relative refractive index accompanied by the transmission of the incident light rays, hence reducing the light intensity inside the waveguide. In particular, the dew-friendly surface of the waveguide is obtained by filling the interior of the waveguide with liquid H2O, i.e., water. A geometric design for the sensor was first carried out considering the curvature of the waveguide and the incident angles of the light rays. Moreover, the optical suitability of waveguide media with various absolute refractive indices, i.e., water, air, oil, and glass, were evaluated through simulation tests. In actual experiments, the sensor with the water-filled waveguide displayed a wider gap between the measured photocurrent levels under conditions with and without dew, than those with the air- and glass-filled waveguides, as a result of the relatively high specific heat of the water. The sensor with the water-filled waveguide exhibited excellent accuracy and repeatability as well.

Speeding up Smartphone-Based Dew Computing: In Vivo Experiments Setup Via an Evolutionary Algorithm.

Dew computing aims to minimize the dependency on remote clouds by exploiting nearby nodes for solving non-trivial computational tasks, e.g., AI inferences. Nowadays, smartphones are good candidates for computing nodes; hence, smartphone clusters have been proposed to accomplish this task and load balancing is frequently a subject of research. Using the same real-i.e., in vivo-testbeds to evaluate different load balancing strategies based on energy utilization is challenging and time consuming. In principle, test repetition requires a platform to control battery charging periods between repetitions. Our Motrol hard-soft device has such a capability; however, it lacks a mechanism to assure and reduce the time in which all smartphone batteries reach the level required by the next test. We propose an evolutionary algorithm to execute smartphone battery (dis)charging plans to minimize test preparation time. Charging plans proposed by the algorithm include charging at different speeds, which is achieved by charging at maximum speed while exercising energy hungry components (the CPU and screen). To evaluate the algorithm, we use various charging/discharging battery traces of real smartphones and we compare the time-taken for our method to collectively prepare a set of smartphones versus that of individually (dis)charging all smartphones at maximum speed.

Measurement of Water Vapor Condensation on Apple Surfaces during Controlled Atmosphere Storage.

Apples are stored at temperatures close to 0 °C and high relative humidity (up to 95%) under controlled atmosphere conditions. Under these conditions, the cyclic operation of the refrigeration machine and the associated temperature fluctuations can lead to localized undershoots of the dew point on fruit surfaces. The primary question for the present study was to prove that such condensation processes can be measured under practical conditions during apple storage. Using the example of a measuring point in the upper apple layer of a large bin in the supply air area, this evidence was provided. Using two independent measuring methods, a wetness sensor attached to the apple surface and determination of climatic conditions near the fruit, the phases of condensation, namely active condensation and evaporation, were measured over three weeks as a function of the operating time of the cooling system components (refrigeration machine, fans, defrosting regime). The system for measurement and continuous data acquisition in the case of an airtight CA-storage room is presented and the influence of the operation of the cooling system components in relation to condensation phenomena was evaluated. Depending on the set point specifications for ventilation and defrost control, condensed water was present on the apple surface between 33.4% and 100% of the duration of the varying cooling/re-warming cycles.

Dew and fog as possible evolutionary drivers? The expansion of crustose and fruticose lichens in the Negev is respectively mainly dictated by dew and fog.

MAIN CONCLUSION: The expansion of crustose lichens in the Negev is principally determined by dew and that of fruticose lichens by fog. Crustose and fruticose lichens are largely adapted to dew and fog, respectively. Although crustose and fruticosea lichens were shown to efficiently use dew and fog, the link between their expansion and the occurrence of dew and fog has never been shown experimentally. This is also the case for the Negev Desert Highlands, where (i) dewless habitats were not inhabited by lichens and (ii) an increase in fruticose lichens with high-altitude fog-prone areas was noted, leading us to hypothesize that the expansion of crustose and fruticose lichens is mainly linked to dew and fog, respectively. Experiments aiming to compare the non-rainfall water (NRW) were conducted. We used cloths attached to 7 cm-high cobbles to mimic crustose lichens (MCL), cloths placed horizontally aboveground to evaluate the amount of NRW without the presence of the cobble (CoP), cloths attached to a wire scaffold mimicking fruticose lichens (MFL), and cloths attached to glass plates (CPM) that served as a reference. Substrate temperatures were compared to the dew point temperature. In addition, sprinkling experiments, which mimicked fog under variable wind speeds (0.9, 1.4, 3.3 and 5.7 m s-1), were also conducted. NRW followed the pattern: MCL ≈ CPM > CoP > > MFL. While MCL yielded substantially higher amounts of NRW (0.09 mm) in comparison to MFL (0.04 mm) during dew events, similar amounts were obtained by both substrates (0.15-0.16 mm) following fog. However, fog interception increased substantially with wind speed. The findings may explain the expansion of crustose lichens in extreme deserts benefiting mainly from dew (but also fog), and the proliferation of fruticose lichens in fog-prone areas, especially when accompanied by high-speed winds. While (mainly) high proliferation of crustose lichens may serve as bioindicators for dew in extreme deserts, fruticose lichens may serve as bioindicators for fog.

Novel lichen-dominated hypolithic communities in the Namib Desert.

The ventral surfaces of translucent rocks from hot desert pavements often harbor hypolithic microbial communities, which are mostly dominated by cyanobacteria. The Namib Desert fog belt supports extensive hypolithic colonization of quartz rocks, which are also colonized by lichens on their dorsal surfaces. Here, we aim to evaluate whether lichens colonize the ventral surface of the rocks (i.e., show hypolithic lifestyle) and compare the bacterial composition of these coastal hypolithic communities with those found inland. Fungal DNA barcoding and fungal and bacterial Illumina metabarcoding were combined with electron microscopy to characterize the composition and spatial structure of hypolithic communities from two (coastal and inland) areas in the Namib Desert. We report, for the first time, the structure and composition of lichen-dominated hypolithic communities found in the coastal zone of the Namib Desert with extensive epilithic lichen cover. Lichen modified areoles with inverted morphology of the genus Stellarangia (three lineages) and Buellia (two lineages) were the main components of these hypolithic communities. Some of these lineages were also found in epilithic habitats. These lichen-dominated hypolithic communities differed in structural organization and bacterial community composition from those found in inland areas. The hypolithic lichen colonization characterized here seems not to be an extension of epilithic or biological soil crust lichen growths but the result of specific sublithic microenvironmental conditions. Moisture derived from fog and dew could be the main driver of this unique colonization.

Dependencies of the indoor climate on the course of the seasons and derivation of regressions from long-term measurements.

A building's indoor climate is an essential input variable for a variety of building physics computational models, simulations, and analyses. Precise knowledge of the indoor climate is necessary to minimize the risk of mold or moisture damage and is required to ensure minimum heat insulation standards in buildings. Detailed data are especially necessary for the progressive application of transient calculations, for example, concerning thermal comfort or energy consumption. While the properties of building materials and the (local) outdoor climate are known, only rudimentary information about the dynamic indoor climate is available. Most existing information in the literature about indoor climate is fairly general and forgoes a differentiation between climatic region, occupancy profile, and the utilization of rooms. In this paper, we report on indoor climate measurements in naturally ventilated apartments over a period of 1 year. The measurement results complement the existing data to provide accurate indoor climate data in buildings. The measured values of indoor temperature and relative humidity serve to derive the dew point temperature and moisture load whereby dynamic time-dependent regression functions are determined for these parameters. The evaluations are carried out separately according to room use. The comparison of living rooms and bedrooms indicates a great influence of room use on the indoor climate in residential buildings. The determined indoor climate model can be used for the planning of buildings and simulations. The classification into living rooms and bedrooms makes it possible to take user behavior into account more realistically in building physics simulations. The minimum thermal insulation in residential buildings can also be checked and designed based on realistic data. The prediction interval describes the limits in which residential rooms are free of damage with a high probability. In this way, the indoor climate model describes an approach to examine and evaluate simulation results regarding condensation risk and mold damage in naturally ventilated rooms.

The Brazilian Cerrado is becoming hotter and drier.

The Brazilian Cerrado is a global biodiversity hotspot with notoriously high rates of native vegetation suppression and wildfires over the past three decades. As a result, climate change can already be detected at both local and regional scales. In this study, we used three different approaches based on independent datasets to investigate possible changes in the daytime and nighttime temperature and air humidity between the peak of the dry season and the beginning of the rainy season in the Brazilian Cerrado. Additionally, we evaluated the tendency of dew point depression, considering it as a proxy to assess impacts on biodiversity. Monthly increases of 2.2-4.0℃ in the maximum temperatures and 2.4-2.8℃ in the minimum temperatures between 1961 and 2019 were recorded, supported by all analyzed datasets which included direct observations, remote sensing, and modeling data. The warming raised the vapor pressure deficit, and although we recorded an upward trend in absolute humidity, relative humidity has reduced by ~15%. If these tendencies are maintained, gradual air warming will make nightly cooling insufficient to reach the dew point in the early hours of the night. Therefore, it will progressively reduce both the amount and duration of nocturnal dewfall, which is the main source of water for numerous plants and animal species of the Brazilian Cerrado during the dry season. Through several examples, we hypothesize that these climate changes can have a high impact on biodiversity and potentially cause ecosystems to collapse. We emphasize that the effects of temperature and humidity on Cerrado ecosystems cannot be neglected and should be further explored from a land use perspective.

Presence and variability of culturable bioaerosols in three multi-family apartment buildings with different ventilation systems in the Northeastern US.

Bioaerosol concentrations in residential buildings located in the Northeastern US have not been widely studied. Here, in 2011-2015, we studied the presence and seasonal variability of culturable fungi and bacteria in three multi-family apartment buildings and correlated the bioaerosol concentrations with building ventilation system types and environmental parameters. A total of 409 indoor and 86 outdoor samples were taken. Eighty-five percent of investigated apartments had indoor-outdoor (I/O) ratios of culturable fungi below 1, suggesting minimal indoor sources of fungi. In contrast, 56% of the apartments had I/O ratios for culturable bacteria above 1, indicating the prominence of indoor sources of bacteria. Culturable fungi I/O ratios in apartments serviced by central heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system were lower than those in apartments with window AC. The type of ventilation system did not have a significant effect on the presence of indoor culturable bacteria. A significant positive association was determined between indoor dew point (DP) levels and indoor culturable fungi (P < .001) and bacteria (P < .001), regardless of ventilation type. Also, residents in apartments with central HVAC did not experience extreme DP values. We conclude that building ventilation systems, seasonality, and indoor sources are major factors affecting indoor bioaerosol levels in residential buildings.

Foliar water uptake in arid ecosystems: seasonal variability and ecophysiological consequences.

Foliar water uptake (FWU) has been reported for different species across several ecosystems types. However, little attention has been given to arid ecosystems, where FWU during dew formation or small rain events could ameliorate water deficits. FWU and their effects on leaf water potential (ΨLeaf) were evaluated in grasses and shrubs exploring different soil water sources in a Patagonian steppe. Also, seasonal variability in FWU and the role of cell wall elasticity in determining the effects on ΨLeaf were assessed. Eleven small rain events (< 8 mm) and 45 days with dew formation were recorded during the study period. All species exhibited FWU after experimental wetting. There was a large variability in FWU across species, from 0.04 mmol m-2 s-1 in species with deep roots to 0.75 mmol m-2 s-1 in species with shallow roots. Species-specific mean FWU rates were positively correlated with mean transpiration rates. The increase in ΨLeaf after leaf wetting varied between 0.65 MPa and 1.67 MPa across species and seasons. The effects of FWU on ΨLeaf were inversely correlated with cell wall elasticity. FWU integrated over both seasons varied between 28 mol m-2 in species with deep roots to 361 mol m-2 in species with shallow roots. Taking into account the percentage of coverage of each species, accumulated FWU represented 1.6% of the total annual transpiration of grasses and shrubs in this ecosystem. Despite this low FWU integrated over time compared to transpiration, wetting leaves surfaces can help to avoid larger water deficit during the dry season.

Impact of meteorological factors on COVID-19 pandemic: Evidence from top 20 countries with confirmed cases.

The global confirmed cases of COVID-19 have surpassed 7 million with over 400,000 deaths reported. However, 20 out of 187 countries and territories have over 2 million confirmed cases alone, a situation which calls for a critical assessment. The social distancing and preventive measures instituted across countries have a link with spread containment whereas spread containment is associated with meteorological factors. Here, we examine the effect of meteorological factors on COVID-19 health outcomes. We develop conceptual tools with dew/frost point, temperature, disaggregate temperature, wind speed, relative humidity, precipitation and surface pressure against confirmed cases, deaths and recovery cases. Using novel panel estimation techniques, our results find strong evidence of causation between meteorological factors and COVID-19 outcomes. We report that high temperature and high relative humidity reduce the viability, stability, survival and transmission of COVID-19 whereas low temperature, wind speed, dew/frost point, precipitation and surface pressure prolong the activation and infectivity of the virus. Our study demonstrates the importance of applying social distancing and preventive measures to mitigate the global pandemic.

Foliar water uptake in Amazonian trees: Evidence and consequences.

The absorption of atmospheric water directly into leaves enables plants to alleviate the water stress caused by low soil moisture, hydraulic resistance in the xylem and the effect of gravity on the water column, while enabling plants to scavenge small inputs of water from leaf-wetting events. By increasing the availability of water, and supplying it from the top of the canopy (in a direction facilitated by gravity), foliar uptake (FU) may be a significant process in determining how forests interact with climate, and could alter our interpretation of current metrics for hydraulic stress and sensitivity. FU has not been reported for lowland tropical rainforests; we test whether FU occurs in six common Amazonian tree genera in lowland Amazônia, and make a first estimation of its contribution to canopy-atmosphere water exchange. We demonstrate that FU occurs in all six genera and that dew-derived water may therefore be used to "pay" for some morning transpiration in the dry season. Using meteorological and canopy wetness data, coupled with empirically derived estimates of leaf conductance to FU (kfu ), we estimate that the contribution by FU to annual transpiration at this site has a median value of 8.2% (103 mm/year) and an interquartile range of 3.4%-15.3%, with the biggest sources of uncertainty being kfu and the proportion of time the canopy is wet. Our results indicate that FU is likely to be a common strategy and may have significant implications for the Amazon carbon budget. The process of foliar water uptake may also have a profound impact on the drought tolerance of individual Amazonian trees and tree species, and on the cycling of water and carbon, regionally and globally.

Doctor Google: Correlating internet search trends for epistaxis with metropolitan climates.

OBJECTIVE: Variation in weather patterns is often cited as a risk factor for epistaxis although robust studies investigating specific climate factors are lacking. As society is increasingly utilizing the Internet to learn more about their medical conditions, we explore whether Internet search activity related to epistaxis is influenced by fluctuations in climate. METHODS: Internet search activity for epistaxis-related search terms during 2012-2017 were extracted from Google Trends and localized to six highly populated cities in the US: New York, New York; Los Angeles, California; Chicago, Illinois; Houston, Texas; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and Atlanta, Georgia. Data were compared to local average monthly climate data from the National Centers for Environmental Information for the same time period. RESULTS: Spearmen correlations (r) were statistically strongest for dew point temperature (rNewYork = -0.82; rPhiladelphia = -0.74; rChicago = -0.65; rAtlanta = -0.49, rLosAngeles = -0.3). This was followed closely by relative humidity (rNewYork = -0.63; rPhiladelphia = -0.57; rLosAngeles = -0.44; rAtlanta = -0.42; rHouston = -0.40) and average temperature (rNewYork = -0.8; rPhiladelphia = -0.72; rChicago = -0.62; rAtlanta = -0.45). Overall, correlations were most significant and predictable for cities with the greatest seasonal climate shifts (New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago). The weakest environmental factor was barometric pressure, which was found to be moderately positive in Atlanta (rbarometric = 0.31), Philadelphia (rbarometric = 0.30) and New York (rbarometric = 0.27). CONCLUSIONS: Google Trends data for epistaxis-related search activity responds closely to climate patterns in most cities studied, thus underscoring the potential utility of Internet search activity data as a resource for epidemiologic study and for the identification of at risk populations.

The Influence of Weather on the Incidence of Primary Spontaneous Intracerebral Hemorrhage.

BACKGROUND: Intracerebral hemorrhage has been associated with changes in various weather conditions. The primary aim of this study was to examine the collective influence of temperature, barometric pressure, and dew point temperature on the incidence of primary spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage (sICH). METHODS: Between January 2013 and December 2016, patients with sICH due to hypertension or amyloid angiopathy with a known time of onset were identified prospectively. Meteorological variables 6 hours prior to time of onset were obtained from the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration via two weather stations. Using a Monte-Carlo simulation, random populations of meteorological conditions in a 6-hour time window during the same years were generated. The actual meteorological conditions 6-hours prior to sICH were compared to those from the randomly generated populations. The false discovery rate method was used to identify significant meteorological variables. RESULTS: Time of onset was identified in 455 of 603 (75.5%) patients. Distribution curves for change in temperature, mean barometric pressure, and change in barometric pressure 6-hours prior to hemorrhage ictus were found to be significantly different from the random populations. (FDR approach P < .05). For a given change in temperature associated with intracerebral hemorrhage, mean barometric pressure was higher (1018 millibar (mb) versus 1016 mb, P = .03). Barometric pressure data was not influenced by variations in temperature. CONCLUSIONS: We concluded that barometric pressure primarily influences the incidence of intracerebral hemorrhage. The association described in the literature between temperature and intracerebral hemorrhage is likely confounded by variations in barometric pressure.

Estimating daily evaporation from poorly-monitored lakes using limited meteorological data: A case study within Qaraoun dam - Lebanon.

Open water evaporation is influenced by several meteorological parameters such as: irradiance, soil temperature, relative humidity, atmospheric pressure and wind speed. However, dealing with that matter, in a case of measurements scarcity, is a challenging task. To overcome this problem, the authors sought a less-dimensional method to estimate lake evaporation. This technique takes into account only three weather variables: temperature, relative Humidity and dew point. In fact, the approach is summarized as follows: 1- using Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm, a Nonlinear Regression model based on Magnus formula is trained and tested to estimate the dew point. 2- a simplified Penman formula provides an estimate for the lake evaporation rate. To test the approach effectiveness, the suggested method was applied on Qaraoun Lake - Lebanon. Upon testing, the regression model exhibited high accuracy with a goodness of fit value equal to 0.99. Afterwards, the evaporation rates were estimated using Penman formula. Unfortunately, evaporation measurements are not available on site to carry the testing procedures. Instead, outcomes were investigated and compared with the monthly evaporation average retrieved from the nearest region to the lake. Estimated rates were reasonably good with a correlation coefficient equal to 0.89 and mean absolute percentage error around 9.8%. At the final stage of this study, sensitivity analysis is performed to quantify the impact of temperature and relative humidity change on evaporation. Overall, the achieved results were reliable enough to carry out a further assessment of the economic impact of evaporation losses from Qaraoun reservoir on the hydropower generation and on the irrigation sector.

Effects of Temperature and Humidity on the Skin Permeation of Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Drugs.

The humidity was a well-known method to hydrate the skin; however, the published data were varied, and systemic experiments in the previous papers were few. Therefore, the in vitro permeation of excised porcine ear skin by drugs with different polarities [aminopyrine (AMP), antipyrine (ANP), methylparaben (MP), and ibuprofen (IP)] was analyzed under a constant skin surface temperature with different temperatures and humidities to reveal the effects of temperature and humidity on the skin permeation enhancement effects. Applied formulations were prepared by mixing the drug and a hydrophilic vehicle containing glycerin. The disposition-distance profiles of water and the humectant glycerin in the stratum corneum were also investigated using confocal Raman microscopy. High absolute humidity (AH) significantly contributed to the high skin penetration of the hydrophilic penetrants AMP, ANP, and MP but not the hydrophobic penetrant IP. An increase in the partition parameter and a decrease in the diffusivity parameter occurred with an increase in AH, independent of drug polarity. Moreover, we found that dew condensation induced by high AH on temperature-controlled skin surface may effectively increase water content and may provide higher glycerin distribution in the skin barrier, the stratum corneum. Increasing the amount of water and hydrophilic vehicles such as glycerin in the stratum corneum may enhance the permeation of hydrophilic penetrants AMP, ANP, and MP. These data suggested a dew condensation on the skin surface induced by high AH at a constant skin surface temperature would be important to enhance hydrophilic penetrants.

Hydrological response of biological soil crusts to global warming: A ten-year simulative study.

Biological soil crusts across the desert regions play a key role in regional ecological security and ecological health. They are vital biotic components of desert ecosystems that maintain soil stability, fix carbon and nitrogen, influence the establishment of vascular plants, and serve as habitats for a large number of arthropods and microorganisms, as well as influencing soil hydrological processes. Changes in temperature and precipitation are expected to influence the functioning of desert ecosystems by altering biotic components such as the species composition of biological soil crusts. However, it remains unclear how these important components will respond to the prolonged warming and reduced precipitation that is predicted to occur with climate change. To evaluate how the hydrological properties of these biological soil crusts respond to these alterations, we used open-top chambers over a 10-year period to simulate warming and reduced precipitation. Infiltration, dew entrapment, and evaporation were measured as surrogates of the hydrological functioning of biological soil crusts. It was found that the ongoing warming coupled with reduced precipitation will more strongly affect moss in crustal communities than lichens and cyanobacteria, which will lead to a direct alteration of the hydrological performance of biological soil crusts. Reductions in moss abundance, surface cover, and biomass resulted in a change in structure and function of crustal communities, decreased dew entrapment, and increased infiltration and evaporation of biological soil crusts in desert ecosystems, which further impacted on the desert soil water balance.