p53 Abnormal Oral Epithelial Dysplasias are Associated With High Risks of Progression and Local Recurrence-A Retrospective Study in a Longitudinal Cohort.

Grading of oral epithelial dysplasia (OED) can be challenging with considerable intraobserver and interobserver variability. Abnormal immunohistochemical staining patterns of the tumor suppressor protein, p53, have been recently shown to be potentially associated with progression in OED. We retrospectively identified 214 oral biopsies from 203 patients recruited in a longitudinal study between 2001 and 2008 with a diagnosis of reactive, nondysplastic lesions, low-grade lesions (mild OED and moderate OED) and high-grade lesions (HGLs; severe OED/carcinoma in situ). Tissue microarrays were constructed from the most representative area of the pathology. Three consecutive sections were sectioned and stained for hematoxylin and eosin, p53 immunohistochemistry, and p16 immunohistochemistry. The staining results were reviewed by 2 pathologists (Y.C.K.K., C.F.P.) blinded to clinical outcome. Samples were categorized into p53 abnormal OED (n = 46), p53 conventional OED (n = 118), and p53 human papillomavirus (HPV) OED (HPV associated) (n = 12) using a previously published pattern-based approach. All cases of p53 HPV OED (HPV associated) were identified in HGLs. In contrast, cases of p53 abnormal OED were observed in mild OED (9.5%), moderate OED (23%), and severe OED/carcinoma in situ (51%). None of the 27 reactive or nondysplastic lesions showed abnormal p53 staining patterns. Among the 135 low-grade lesions, 23 cases (17.0%; 2 mild OEDs and 21 moderate OEDs) progressed to HGL or squamous cell carcinoma, with 11 cases showing progression within the first 3 years. Remarkably, 82% (9/11) of these faster progressors showed abnormal p53 patterns. Survival analysis revealed that p53 abnormal OED had significantly poorer progression-free probability (P < .0001) with hazard ratio of 11.24 (95% CI, 4.26-29.66) compared with p53 conventional OED. Furthermore, p53 abnormal OED had poorer local recurrence-free survival compared with p53 wild-type OED (P = .03). The study supports that OED with p53 abnormal pattern is at high risk for progression and recurrence independent of the dysplasia grade.

Oral epithelial dysplasia with lymphocytic immune response: clinicopathological characterisation of 44 cases.

AIMS: Oral epithelial dysplasia (OED) often exhibits a lymphocytic/lichenoid immune response (LIR), imparting histological resemblance to lichenoid mucositis and rendering diagnosis challenging. The clinical appearances of OED and lichenoid inflammatory processes are generally divergent, presenting as well-demarcated hyperkeratotic plaques and diffuse white and/or red mucosal change with variably prominent Wickham striae, respectively. To date, clinicopathological characterisation of OED with LIR, including clinical/gross appearance, has not been depicted. METHODS AND RESULTS: Cases of solitary OED with LIR for which a clinical photograph was available were identified in the authors' institutional files. Clinical and histological features were documented. In 44 identified cases, dysplasia was mild (19 of 44, 43.2%), moderate (19 of 44, 43.2%) and severe (six of 44, 13.6%). Clinically/grossly, all 44 cases (100.0%), presented as well-demarcated hyperkeratotic plaques lacking diffuse white-and-red mucosal change or Wickham striae. Histologically, OED with LIR exhibited numerous 'lichenoid' features beyond the lymphocytic band in the superficial lamina propria, including: leucocyte transmigration (38 of 44, 86.4%), spongiosis (37 of 44, 84.1%), Civatte/colloid bodies (36 of 44, 81.8%), basal cell degeneration (29 of 45, 65.9%), sawtooth rete ridges (11 of 44, 25.0%) and subepithelial clefting (7 of 44, 15.9%). CONCLUSIONS: Virtually any lichenoid histological feature may be seen in OED with LIR, representing a significant diagnostic pitfall. The typical clinical appearance of OED with LIR is of a well-demarcated hyperkeratotic plaque, characteristic of keratinising dysplasia and devoid of lichenoid features. This suggests that pathologist access to clinical photographs during diagnostic interpretation of biopsied white lesions, which represents opportunity to perform gross examination of the disease process, may reduce interobserver variability and improve diagnostic accuracy in this challenging differential diagnosis.

Calibration improves the agreement in grading oral epithelial dysplasia-Findings from a National Workshop in Malaysia.

INTRODUCTION: A major pitfall of many of the established oral epithelial dysplasia (OED) grading criteria is their lack of reproducibility and accuracy to predict malignant transformation. The main objective of this study was to determine whether calibration of practicing oral pathologists on OED grading could improve the reproducibility of the WHO 2017 and the binary OED grading systems. METHODS: A nationwide online exercise was carried out to determine the influence of calibration on the reproducibility of the WHO 2017 and the binary OED grading systems. RESULTS: A significant improvement was observed in the inter-observer agreement for the WHO 2017 OED grading system (K 0.196 vs. 0.448; Kw 0.357 vs. 0.562) after the calibration exercise. The significant difference (p = 0.027) in the level of agreement between those with five or more years and less than 5 years of experience was no more observed (p = 0.426) after the calibration exercise. The percent agreement for binary grading was significantly higher (91.8%) for buccal mucosal lesions as compared to lesions on the tongue after the calibration exercise. CONCLUSION: This study validates the significance of calibration in improving the reproducibility of OED grading. The nationwide exercise resulted in a statistically significant improvement in the inter-observer agreement for the WHO 2017 OED grading system among a large number of oral pathologists. It is highly recommended that similar exercises should be organized periodically by professional bodies responsible for continuing education among oral pathologists to improve the reliability of OED grading for optimal treatment of oral potentially malignant disorders.

Understanding interobserver variability of pathologists to improve oral epithelial dysplasia grading.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to understand reasons for interobserver variability in the grading of oral epithelial dysplasia (OED) through a survey of pathologists to provide insight for improvements in the reliability and reproducibility of OED diagnoses. METHODS: The study design included quantitative and qualitative methodology. A pre-validated 31-item questionnaire was distributed to general, head and neck, and oral and maxillofacial histopathology specialists worldwide. RESULTS: A total of 132 pathologists participated and completed the questionnaire. Over two-thirds used the three-tier grading system for OED, while about a third used both binary and three-tier systems. Regular reporters of OED preferred the three-tier system and grading architectural features. Continuing education significantly aided recognition of architectural and cytological changes. Irregular epithelial stratification and drop-shaped rete ridges had the lowest prognostic value and recognition scores, while loss of epithelial cell cohesion had the highest. Most participants used clinical information and often sought a second opinion when grading OED. CONCLUSION: Our study has found that frequency of OED reporting and attendance of CME/CPD can play an important role in grading OED. Variations in the prognostic value of individual histological features and the use of clinical information may further contribute to interobserver variability.

Prognosis of oral epithelial dysplasia in individuals with and without oral lichen planus.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the role of oral lichen planus (OLP) on the long-term prognosis of oral epithelial dysplasia (OED). METHODS: Retrospective single-centre cohort study using the 2007-2019 database of the Head and Neck Cancer and Oral Medicine units of University College London Hospital. The exposure of interest was the presence of OLP, and the prognostic outcomes included the development of new primary episodes of OED, progression to malignancy and mortality. Cox proportional hazard and Poisson regression models were performed. RESULTS: A total of 299 patients, of whom 144 had OED arising on the background of OLP (OLP/OED) and 155 had OED without underlying OLP (non-OLP/OED), were included. A pre-existing diagnosis of OLP was significantly associated with a twofold increased risk of subsequent primary OED events (HR = 2.02, p = 0.04), which also developed faster (1.46 vs. 2.96 years, p = 0.04) and with more involvement of non-cancer-prone sites (p = 0.001) than in the non-OLP/OED group. There was no difference between groups in the progression to malignancy or mortality. CONCLUSIONS: Oral lichen planus/OED patients are at higher risk of multiple episodes of primary OED, which can develop faster and at non-cancer-prone sites as compared to non-OLP/OED individuals. Further research is needed to clarify the effects of OLP upon progression to OSCC and mortality.

PDCD4 and MIR-21 are promising biomarkers in the follow-up of OED in liquid biopsies.

This research aims to examine the impact of programmed cell death 4 (PDCD4), microRNA-21 (miR-21) and microRNA-208a (miR-208a) transcripts, and protein levels on oral epithelial dysplasia (OED) development in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). METHODS: The research investigation involved the collection of saliva, blood, and tissue samples from a total of 20 patients diagnosed with OSCC, 15 patients diagnosed with OED, and 15 healthy individuals. PDCD4, miR-21, and miR-208a expression was performed by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). PDCD4 protein levels were assessed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in both saliva and blood samples. For statistical analysis, the Kruskal-Wallis test and the Spearmen rank test were utilised. RESULTS: PDCD4 expression levels were considerably lower in patients with OSCC and OED (p < 0.05) in three biological samples. In contrast, miR-21 expression was higher in OED and OSCC patients. Patients with low PDCD4 mRNA levels and strong miR-21 expression had a significant connection (p < 0.05) with tumor size and depth. CONCLUSIONS: Examining PDCD4 and miR-21 transcript levels may help detect the transition from OED to OSCC. This work suggests that PDCD4 and miR-21 expression levels in liquid biopsies may be biomarkers for OED monitoring in the future.

Immunoexpression of SIRT1, 6, and 7 in oral leukoplakia and oral squamous cell carcinoma.

Sirtuins (SIRTs) are a family of proteins involved in the metabolic process responsible for extending the lifespan. The role of SIRT1, 6, and 7 in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) and oral leukoplakia (OLP), one of its precursors, is still elusive. In this study, 82 OLP and 77 OSCC were immunohistochemically examined for SIRT1, 6, and 7. Stained sections were thoroughly scanned and evaluated using a digital image analysis program. The SIRT1, 6, and 7 expressions were detected in the nuclei of epithelial and carcinoma cells in various degrees. Afterward, any correlations among SIRTs, including associations with clinicopathological features and the Kaplan-Meier curves were analyzed. OSCC demonstrated significantly higher SIRT1 expression than OLP, while non-dysplastic lesions showed significantly higher SIRT6 expression than other lesions. A strong correlation was observed between SIRT6 and 7 in OLP, SIRT1 and 6 in in OSCC and in SIRT6 and 7 when all lesion types were considered. There were no significant differences between SIRTs reactivity and the clinical features in OLP. For OSCC, SIRT1 and 6 was found to be directly associated with site of the lesion, while SIRT7 showed a direct relationship between gender, stromal lymphocytic infiltration, and depth of the invasion. OSCC with high SIRT7 expression revealed a slightly lower survival probability, although not statistically significant (p = 0.1019). Our findings suggest that SIRT1, 6, and 7 may play correlated and diverse roles in the development and advancement of OSCC.

Dental pulp stem cells promote malignant transformation of oral epithelial cells through mitochondrial transfer.

Oral epithelial dysplasia includes a range of clinical oral mucosal diseases with potentially malignant traits. Dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) are potential candidates for cell-based therapies targeting various diseases. However, the effect of DPSCs on the progression of oral mucosal precancerous lesions remains unclear. Animal experiments were conducted to assess the effect of human DPSCs (hDPSCs). We measured the proliferation, motility and mitochondrial respiratory function of the human dysplastic oral keratinocyte (DOK) cells cocultured with hDPSCs. Mitochondrial transfer experiments were performed to determine the role mitochondria from hDPSCs in the malignant transformation of DOK cells. hDPSCs injection accelerated carcinogenesis in 4NQO-induced oral epithelial dysplasia in mice. Coculture with hDPSCs increased the proliferation, migration, invasion and mitochondrial respiratory function of DOK cells. Mitochondria from hDPSCs could be transferred to DOK cells, and activated mTOR signaling pathway in DOK cells. Our study demonstrates that hDPSCs activate the mTOR signaling pathway through mitochondrial transfer, promoting the malignant transformation of oral precancerous epithelial lesions.

Clinical, histopathological characteristics and malignant transformation of proliferative verrucous leukoplakia with 36 patients: a retrospective longitudinal study.

BACKGROUND: Proliferative verrucous leukoplakia (PVL), distinguished by its malignant transformation rate of 43.87% to 65.8%, stands as the oral potentially malignant disorder with the highest propensity for malignancy. PVL is marked by distinctive heterogeneity regarding the clinical or histopathological characteristics as well as prognostic factors pertinent to this condition. The purpose of this study is to compile and assess the clinicopathological features, malignant transformation, and associated risk factors in patients diagnosed with PVL. METHODS: This study is a hospital-based retrospective longitudinal study of 36 patients diagnosed with PVL from 2013 to 2023. We conducted complete clinical and histopathological evaluations of the patients. RESULTS: The cohort comprised 16 males and 20 females, yielding a male-to-female ratio of 1:1.25. The follow-up period ranged from 8 to 125 months, with an average of 47.50 months. The most common clinical type of lesion was the verrucous form (58.33%), and the gingiva was the most common site (44.44%). Each patient had between 2 to 7 lesions, averaging 3.36 per patient. During the follow-up period, twelve patients (33.3%) developed oral cancer, with an average time to malignant transformation of 35.75 months. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis indicated that patients with complaints of pain, roughness, or a rough sensation, with diabetes, and the presence of cytologic atypia histologically showed a higher risk of malignant transformation (p < 0.05). In this study, the rate of malignant transformation in the treatment group (5/23) was lower than that in the untreated group (7/13), however, no statistically significant difference (p = 0.05). CONCLUSION: The main complaints of pain, roughness, or foreign body sensation, coupled with cytologic atypia histologically are indicative of an increased risk of malignant transformation in PVL. Further research is needed to elucidate the influence of these clinicopathological parameters on the malignant progression of PVL.

Oral epithelial dysplasia detection and grading in oral leukoplakia using deep learning.

BACKGROUND: The grading of oral epithelial dysplasia is often time-consuming for oral pathologists and the results are poorly reproducible between observers. In this study, we aimed to establish an objective, accurate and useful detection and grading system for oral epithelial dysplasia in the whole-slides of oral leukoplakia. METHODS: Four convolutional neural networks were compared using the image patches from 56 whole-slide of oral leukoplakia labeled by pathologists as the gold standard. Sequentially, feature detection models were trained, validated and tested with 1,000 image patches using the optimal network. Lastly, a comprehensive system named E-MOD-plus was established by combining feature detection models and a multiclass logistic model. RESULTS: EfficientNet-B0 was selected as the optimal network to build feature detection models. In the internal dataset of whole-slide images, the prediction accuracy of E-MOD-plus was 81.3% (95% confidence interval: 71.4-90.5%) and the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve was 0.793 (95% confidence interval: 0.650 to 0.925); in the external dataset of 229 tissue microarray images, the prediction accuracy was 86.5% (95% confidence interval: 82.4-90.0%) and the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve was 0.669 (95% confidence interval: 0.496 to 0.843). CONCLUSIONS: E-MOD-plus was objective and accurate in the detection of pathological features as well as the grading of oral epithelial dysplasia, and had potential to assist pathologists in clinical practice.

Association of podoplanin expression to histopathological grades of oral epithelial dysplasia and oral squamous cell carcinoma.

Objective: To determine the expression of podoplanin, and to correlate it with histopathological grades in oral epithelial dysplasia and oral squamous cell carcinoma cases. METHODS: The retrospective, analytical, cross-sectional study was conducted at the City Laboratory, Peshawar, Pakistan, and comprised specimen block data of histologically diagnosed cases of oral benign lesions, dysplastic lesions and oral squamous cell carcinoma from January 2017 to August 2021. Two sections (4um) were cut from each specimen block for Haematoxylin and Eosin staining and immunohistochemistry. The slides were re-evaluated by two pathologists for confirmation of the diagnosis, and podoplanin marker was applied to cases selected using immunohistochemistry. Data was analysed using SPSS 22. RESULTS: Of the 80 cases identified, 68(85%) were analysed. There were 20(29.4%) benign cases; 11(55%) females and 9(45%) males with mean age 39.90±16.23 years, 20(29.4%) oral dysplastic cases; 14(70%) males and 6(30%) females with mean age 57.75±12.02 years, and 28(41.2%) oral squamous cell carcinoma cases; 17(61%) males and 11(39%) females with mean age 50.55±14.80 years. Podoplanin expression in oral epithelial dysplasia cases was significant (p=0.028), while it was not significant in the other 2 groups (p>0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Podoplanin when used along with histopathological evaluation could aid as an adjuvant technique in the diagnosis and grading of oral epithelial dysplasia.

Automated immunohistochemical quantification of hypoxia biomarkers shows correlation with dysplastic epithelial changes.

BACKGROUND: Dysregulation of the hypoxia-aerobic system has been postulated in various malignancies. Nonetheless, the contribution of hypoxia to oral carcinogenesis is yet to be elucidated. Understanding this mechanism is important for improving diagnostic tools and targeted therapies. This study aimed to assess the dysregulation of hypoxia-related factors during different stages of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) development. METHODS: Ninety-two patients diagnosed clinically with oral leukoplakia or OSCC were included and classified according to their histopathological diagnoses. A panel of seven hypoxia-related antibodies were used for immunohistochemical staining of each case. Automated quantification of immunostaining was used for objective reporting. Microvessel density was also assessed. RESULTS: Significant associations were reported for non-dysplastic epithelial changes and malignancy for Glut1, HIF-1α, vascular endothelial growth factor, and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3(p < 0.005). Similarly, microvessel density significantly increased with the severity of epithelial disorders. A multiple regression model including the H-score of HIF-1α and microvessel density could statistically significantly predict the grade of epithelial disorder (p < 0.005). The associated diagnostic accuracy of this approach was 88%. CONCLUSIONS: Hypoxia-associated events are observed during early epithelial dysplastic changes and have a potential role in oral carcinogenesis. The level of hypoxia may assist in stratifying the severity of epithelial changes among patients with oral leukoplakia.

Expression of Epsin3 and its interaction with Notch signalling in oral epithelial dysplasia and oral squamous cell carcinoma.

BACKGROUND: Most oral squamous cell carcinoma patients present with late-stage disease. Early detection of the disease is considered to be the most effective way of improving patient outcomes. Several biomarkers have been identified as indicators of oral cancer development and progression; however, none have been translated into clinical practice. In this study, we have investigated the role of Epsin3, an endocytic adaptor protein, and Notch1, a transmembrane signalling protein, in oral carcinogenesis with a view to explore their potential as biomarkers. METHODS: Oral cancer cell lines and a normal oral keratinocyte cell line were used together with tissue samples of normal oral mucosa (n = 21), oral epithelial dysplasia (n = 74) and early stage (Stages I and II) oral squamous cell carcinoma (n = 31). Immunocytochemical staining, immunoblotting and real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) were performed to assess protein as well as gene expression levels. RESULTS: The expression levels of Epsin3 and Notch1 mRNA and protein are variable across different oral squamous cell carcinoma derived cell lines. Epsin3 was upregulated in oral epithelial dysplasia and oral squamous cell carcinoma tissues compared with normal epithelium. Overexpression of Epsin3 resulted in a significant reduction of Notch1 expression in oral squamous cell carcinoma. Notch1 was generally downregulated in the dysplasia and oral squamous cell carcinoma samples. CONCLUSION: Epsin3 is upregulated in oral epithelial dysplasia and oral squamous cell carcinoma and has the potential to be used as a biomarker for oral epithelial dysplasia. Notch signalling is downregulated in oral squamous cell carcinoma, possibly through an Epsin3-induced de-activation pathway.

Point-of-care Analysis for Non-invasive Diagnosis of Oral cancer (PANDORA): A technology-development proof of concept diagnostic accuracy study of dielectrophoresis in patients with oral squamous cell carcinoma and dysplasia.

BACKGROUND: Delays in the identification and referral of oral cancer remain frequent. An accurate and non-invasive diagnostic test to be performed in primary care may help identifying oral cancer at an early stage and reduce mortality. Point-of-care Analysis for Non-invasive Diagnosis of Oral cancer (PANDORA) was a proof-of-concept prospective diagnostic accuracy study aimed at advancing the development of a dielectrophoresis-based diagnostic platform for oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) and epithelial dysplasia (OED) using a novel automated DEPtech 3DEP analyser. METHODS: The aim of PANDORA was to identify the set-up of the DEPtech 3DEP analyser associated with the highest diagnostic accuracy in identifying OSCC and OED from non-invasive brush biopsy samples, as compared to the gold standard test (histopathology). Measures of accuracy included sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive value. Brush biopsies were collected from individuals with histologically proven OSCC and OED, histologically proven benign mucosal disease, and healthy mucosa (standard test), and analysed via dielectrophoresis (index test). RESULTS: 40 individuals with OSCC/OED and 79 with benign oral mucosal disease/healthy mucosa were recruited. Sensitivity and specificity of the index test was 86.8% (95% confidence interval [CI], 71.9%-95.6%) and 83.6% (95% CI, 73.0%-91.2%). Analysing OSCC samples separately led to higher diagnostic accuracy, with 92.0% (95% CI, 74.0%-99.0%) sensitivity and 94.5% (95% CI, 86.6%-98.5%) specificity. CONCLUSION: The DEPtech 3DEP analyser has the potential to identify OSCC and OED with notable diagnostic accuracy and warrants further investigation as a potential triage test in the primary care setting for patients who may need to progress along the diagnostic pathway and be offered a surgical biopsy.

Malignant transformation rate of oral leukoplakia in the past 20 years: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: This meta-analysis aimed to assess the rate of malignant transformation (MT) of oral leukoplakia (OL) and to study potential risk factors for the MT of OL into oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). METHOD: We performed a bibliographic search on nine electronic databases, including PubMed, MEDLINE, and Wanfang Data, for data on the MT rate of OL. Possible risk factors were calculated using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis and Open Meta [Analyst] software. RESULTS: The pooled proportion of OL MT for the total population described in the 26 selected studies was 7.20% (95% confidence interval: 5.40-9.10%). Nonhomogeneous type lesions, higher grades of dysplasia, the location of the lesion (tongue and multifocal), and female sex had significant effects on the MT of OL. CONCLUSION: OL tended to develop into OSCC (7.2%), and those with significant MT risk factors should be subjected to regular follow-up and observation. However, we require large-scale prospective studies to validate these results, together with unified clinicopathological diagnostic criteria, standardized risk factor recording/assessment methods, and long-term follow-up guidelines.

Dynamic real-time optical microscopy of oral mucosal lesions using confocal laser endomicroscopy.

OBJECTIVES: Confocal laser endomicroscopy (CLE) is a novel non-invasive point-of-care optical biopsy technology that enables real-time in vivo microscopic visualisation of cellular and tissue architecture. In this study, we assessed the diagnostic accuracy of a hand-held fluorescence single-fibre distal-scanning CLE (fsdCLE) platform for diagnosing oral epithelial dysplasia (OED) and oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Forty-seven patients presenting with 63 distinct oral mucosal lesions were subjected to optical biopsy using a miniaturised fsdCLE system (ViewnVivo®, Optiscan Imaging Ltd) and topical exogenous acriflavine hydrochloride contrast agent before undergoing tissue biopsy and histopathological consensus review by four pathologists. CLE images were captured in vivo in real-time during clinical examination and assessed on-the-fly for the presence of cellular and architectural features of OED/OSCC offering an instantaneous diagnosis. Predicted optical diagnoses were compared to definitive consensus tissue histopathology. Sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), negative predictive value (NPV) and accuracy were calculated for the presence/absence of dysplasia/malignancy on optical biopsy. Percentage agreement, Fleiss' kappa, and intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) were calculated for each assessment stage during the consensus histopathology process. RESULTS: Diagnostic accuracy was extremely high at 88.9%. Other metrics were sensitivity 86.8%, specificity 92%, PPV 94.3% and NPV 82.1%. One hundred percent of carcinoma cases were detected accurately using CLE in the clinic. CONCLUSION: fsdCLE is a highly accurate, easy-to-use, rapid and slide-free point-of-care in vivo optical technology for diagnosing OED/OSCC and discriminating between dysplastic and non-dysplastic pathology. It demonstrates near-perfect agreement with traditional consensus histopathology without the need for physical tissue biopsy.

Association between human papillomavirus and oral cancer: a literature review.

HPV plays a vital role in the development of cervical cancers and oropharyngeal cancers, but it is controversial whether HPV is involved in oral cancer development and to what extent. In this review, the clinical characteristics, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of HPV-positive oral cancers are summarized, and the mechanisms of HPV-related oral cancer development are discussed. HPV DNA positivity rates are 20-30% in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), and HPV16 is the most common high-risk HPV. E6/E7 mRNA positivity rates are 2-6% in OSCC. Detection of both high-risk HPV DNA and E6/E7 mRNA is recommended to determine the presence of active HPV, in agreement with high-risk HPV infection in OSCC. Surgical treatment is the first-line therapy for HPV-positive and -negative oral cancer, but there is no unified view about the prognosis of HPV-positive OSCC patients. HPV16 may play a vital role in malignant transformation in oral epithelial dysplasia, and a model of synergistic carcinogenic impact of HPV and tobacco smoking is predicted. Additionally, it is hypothesized that there are different HPV-associated oral cancers, such as integrated HPV DNA-positive OSCC with stable E6/E7 expression and episomal HPV DNA-positive OSCC. In summary, the role of HPV in oral carcinogenesis seems to be limited because of the low E6/E7 positivity in OSCCs; however, episomal HPV DNA may play a vital role in the malignant transformation of HPV-positive oral premalignant lesions. Further investigation is required to promote new insights into the role of episomal HPV DNA in oral carcinogenesis.

Architectural and cytological features of epithelial dysplasia associated with transformation risk.

OBJECTIVES: This study explored associations between histological features of dysplasia and malignant transformation, as well as genomic copy number alterations. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Overall, 201 samples were collected from patients of oral leukoplakia. The associations of dysplastic features with malignant transformation and copy number alterations were investigated by Cox proportional hazards regression analysis and the Mann-Whitney U-test. RESULTS: Eight individual histological features, such as irregular epithelial stratification (p = 0.001), mitoses high in epithelium (p = 0.033), extension of changes along minor gland ducts (p < 0.001), etc., were associated with greater risk of malignant transformation. A model including histological features and age showed good performance for predicting malignant transformation (area under receiver operating characteristic curve: 0.806). Irregular epithelial stratification (p = 0.007), abnormal nuclear shape (p = 0.005), abnormal cell size (p = 0.004), etc. were associated with greater genomic instability. CONCLUSIONS: A Cox proportional hazards model using eight histological features and patient age reliably predicted the malignant potential of oral epithelial dysplasia. Identification of these histological features closely related to malignant transformation may aid the management of oral potentially malignant disorders and early detection of oral squamous cell carcinoma.

Tertiary lymphoid structures in oral lichen planus and oral epithelial dysplasia with lichenoid features: A comparative study.

OBJECTIVE: Tertiary lymphoid structures (TLSs) provide sites for antigen presentation and activation of lymphocytes, promoting their infiltration; thus, enhancing specific immune responses. The aim of this comparative cross-sectional study was to reveal the characteristics and influence of TLSs in oral lichen planus (OLP) and oral epithelial dysplasia (OED) with lichenoid features. METHODS: Clinical information and samples of 51 OLP and 19 OED with lichenoid features were collected. Immunohistochemistry was performed, and the structures where CD20+ B cells and CD3+ T cells aggregated with peripheral lymph node addressin positive (PNAd+) vessels were defined as TLSs. The results and clinical information were analysed. RESULT: TLS were found in 44 (86.3%) patients with OLP and 19 (100%) patients with OED. The TLS score was higher in OED group (p = 0.023), accompanied by an increased number of PNAd+ vessels. The TLS was significantly correlated with PNAd+ vessels (p = 0.027), CD20+ B (p < 0.001) and CD208+ dendritic cells (p = 0.001). Foxp3+ Treg cells but not CD8+ T cells infiltrated more severely in OED (p = 0.003) and increased when TLS score was high (p = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: This study revealed the widespread development of TLSs in the OLP and OED. The presence of TLSs showed a close relationship with dysplasia and may increase malignant potency by over-inducing Treg cells.

Audiovisual information of oral epithelial dysplasia: Quality, understandability and actionability.

OBJECTIVES: Online information on oral epithelial dysplasia (OED) is insufficient and of low quality. While only written information has been previously assessed, this study aims to evaluate the content and quality of audiovisual (AV) online information about OED. METHODS: One hundred and twenty-seven materials were initially considered using six key words across two search engines (YouTube and Google). Ultimately, 29 materials remained for the final assessment. These materials were then analysed for content, quality (DISCERN instrument, JAMA benchmarks), understandability and actionability. RESULTS: Most contents were scientific (n = 25), while three videos were educational, and one video was a personal experience with OED. On a scale of 1-5, the overall DISCERN score was (mean ± SD = 2.26 ± 0.79), suggesting poor quality of information. Regarding JAMA benchmarks, there was no single material that fulfilled or lacked all four benchmarks. The overall mean understandability score was 82% and the actionability mean score was significantly low at 29%. CONCLUSION: Although the vast majority of AV materials on OED were primarily produced for scientific purposes, these materials could be helpful as resources for patient education. Keeping in mind, however, that the desired quality and essential patient information about OED available online remains largely poor and missing.