Ultraviolet-Driven Deamination of Cytidine Ribonucleotides Under Planetary Conditions.

A previously proposed synthesis of pyrimidine ribonucleotides makes use of ultraviolet (UV) light to convert ß-d-ribocytidine-2',3'-cyclic phosphate to ß-d-ribouridine-2',3'-cyclic phosphate, while simultaneously selectively degrading synthetic byproducts. Past studies of the photochemical reactions of pyrimidines have employed mercury arc lamps, characterized by narrowband emission centered at 254 nm, which is not representative of the UV environment of the early Earth. To further assess this process under more realistic circumstances, we investigated the wavelength dependence of the UV-driven conversion of ß-d-ribocytidine-2',3'-cyclic phosphate to ß-d-ribouridine-2',3'-cyclic phosphate. We used constraints provided by planetary environments to assess the implications for pyrimidine nucleotides on the early Earth. We found that the wavelengths of light (255-285 nm) that most efficiently drive the deamination of ß-d-ribocytidine-2',3'-cyclic phosphate to ß-d-ribouridine-2',3'-cyclic phosphate are accessible on planetary surfaces such as those of the Hadean-Archaean Earth for CO2-N2-dominated atmospheres. However, continued irradiation could eventually lead to low levels of ribocytidine in a low-temperature, highly irradiated environment, if production rates are slow.

Modulating unimolecular charge transfer by exciting bridge vibrations.

Ultrafast UV-vibrational spectroscopy was used to investigate how vibrational excitation of the bridge changes photoinduced electron transfer between donor (dimethylaniline) and acceptor (anthracene) moieties bridged by a guanosine-cytidine base pair (GC). The charge-separated (CS) state yield is found to be lowered by high-frequency bridge mode excitation. The effect is linked to a dynamic modulation of the donor-acceptor coupling interaction by weakening of H-bonding and/or by disruption of the bridging base-pair planarity.

Formation of C1' located sugar radicals from X-irradiated cytosine nucleosides and -tides in BeF2 glasses and frozen aqueous solutions.

Free radical formation in nucleosides and nucleotides containing cytosine as base was studied after X-irradiation at 77 K of samples prepared in frozen aqueous BeF2 glasses and in frozen aqueous solutions by means of electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy. By comparison with radical patterns from the cytosine base and from 1-CH3-cytosine, by using specifically base-deuterated nucleosides and by comparison between the 2'-deoxy- and the ribonucleotide it could be demonstrated that a radical at the C1'-position of the sugar was formed in nucleosides and nucleotides in both matrices. Quantitative analysis showed that in the BeF2 glass an initial population of about 10% of substrate located species due to this radical was present at 77 K and developed to about 25% after decay of the .OH (.OD) radicals at about 140 K. This was taken as proof that at least part of these radicals were formed from .OH radicals. In frozen aqueous solutions about 20% of C1' located sugar radicals were found to be present at 77 K, the population remaining roughly constant with increasing temperature to 140 K. The mechanistic findings of these unexpected results are discussed in terms of mobile .OH radicals and/or hole transfer in the glass and in the glassy regions of the frozen aqueous solutions.

Laser photolysis of cytosine, cytidine and dCMP in aqueous solution.

Laser photolysis of cytosine and cytosine derivatives (cytidine and 2'-deoxycytidine-5'-monophosphate) using acetone as a sensitizer have been carried out in aqueous solution using a KrF laser. The absorption spectra of triplet states of cytosine and cytosine derivatives have been observed for the first time. From detailed kinetic analyses, the reaction mechanisms including triplet-triplet excitation transfer, and intramolecular excitation transfer within the exciplex arising from the interaction of triplet acetone with cytosine and cytosine derivatives, have been suggested. Accordingly, a series of kinetic parameters have also been obtained.

Abiogenic synthesis of pyrimidine nucleotides in solid state by vacuum ultraviolet radiation.

The abiogenic synthesis of pyrimidine nucleotides in solid state has been investigated. Our experiment indicates that natural nucleotides are produced in thin films prepared from nucleoside and inorganic phosphate by irradiating with vacuum ultraviolet light (VUV, lambda=100-200 nm). We have investigated the influence of the type of nucleic acids base (thymidine, cytosine, uracil) and the structure of sugar moiety (ribose or deoxyribose) on the course and yield of reaction. We compared the action of vacuum ultraviolet light with action of gamma-radiation, heat and biology significant UV (254 nm) which have been investigated earlier. The occurrence of these reaction in open space is discussed.

Conjugation of (E)-5-[2-(Methoxycarbonyl)ethenyl]cytidine to hydrophilic microspheres: development of a mobile microscale UV light actinometer.

( E)-5-[2-(Methoxycarbonyl)ethenyl]cytidine was biotinylated through a diisopropylsilylacetal linkage and attached to the surface of hydrophilic streptavidin-coated microspheres through the high-affinity noncovalent interaction between biotin and streptavidin. The functionalized microspheres form a stable suspension in water. Upon UV irradiation, the nonfluorescent ( E)-5-[2-(methoxycarbonyl)ethenyl]cytidine on the microspheres undergoes photocyclization to produce highly fluorescent 3-beta-D-ribofuranosyl-2,7-dioxopyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine. The fluorescence intensity of the microspheres can be correlated to the particle-specific UV doses applied at different suspension concentrations. The microspheres allow one to measure the UV dose (fluence) distribution in high-throughput water disinfection systems.

(E)-5-[2-(methoxycarbonyl)ethenyl]cytidine as a chemical actinometer for germicidal UV radiation.

(E)-5-[2-(Methoxycarbonyl)ethenyl]cytidine (S) was examined for use as a chemical actinometer for germicidal UV radiation. Its photoproduct, 3-beta-D-ribofuranosyl-2,7-dioxopyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine (P), is strongly fluorescent with excitation and emission maxima at 330 and 385 nm, respectively. Experiments were conducted to characterize the dynamic behavior of aqueous solutions of S and P when subjected to UV radiation. UV sources used for these experiments included a low-pressure mercury lamp, a XeBr excimer lamp, and a KrCI excimer lamp; all three sources were mounted in collimating devices to provide incident beams that could be easily and accurately characterized by radiometry. These three sources each yielded essentially monochromatic outputwith characteristic wavelengths of 254, 282, and 222 nm, respectively. At practical concentrations, it was found that the absorbance of the actinometer solution was neither high enough to make the actinometer solutions optically opaque nor low enough to be optically transparent to UV. In addition, the photoproduct displayed a molar absorption coefficient that was similar in magnitude to that of the parent compound, thereby resulting in competitive absorption of UV energy between Sand Pduring irradiation. For purposes of evaluation of the results of irradiation, a mathematical model was developed to accountforthe nonideal optical characteristics of the system. The model is based on a description of local photochemical kinetics; predictions of overall reactor performance were developed by spatial and temporal integration of model results. The model was used to analyze the dynamic behavior of actinometer solutions during UV irradiation and to estimate the quantum yield for photoproduction of Pfrom S. This modeling approach is potentially applicable to other photochemical processes in which multiple compounds are present that absorb photoactive radiation; however, general application of this modeling approach to photochemical reactor systems will require inclusion of othertermsto describe relevanttransport behavior within the system.

Mechanism of the mutagenic action of hydroxylamine. IX. The UV-induced cleavage of the N-O bond in N4-hydroxy-and N4-methoxycytidine and N6-methoxyadenosine.

The principal UV-induced (lambda = 2546nm) reaction of N4-hydroxy- and N4methoxycytidines and N6-methoxyadenosine in neutral aqueous solutions is cleavage of the exocyclic N-O bond with the respective formation of cytidine and adenosine. Quantum yields are 2.8x10(-3) and 2.2x10(-3) M/E for the first two compounds and 9.1x10(-3) M/E for N6-methoxyadenosine.

An ultraviolet light-induced crosslink in yeast tRNA(Phe).

The irradiation of native or unmodified yeast tRNA(Phe) by short wavelength UV light (260 nM) results in an intramolecular crosslink that has been mapped to occur between C48 in the variable loop and U59 in the T loop. Photo-reversibility of the crosslink and the absence of fluorescent photo adducts suggest that the crosslink product is a cytidine-uridine cyclobutane dimer. This is consistent with the relative geometries of C48 and U59 in the crystal structure of yeast tRNA(Phe). Evaluation of the crosslinking efficiency of the mutants of tRNA(Phe) indicates that the reaction depends on the correct tertiary structure of the RNA.

The reactions of cytidine and 2'-deoxycytidine with SO4.- revisited. Pulse radiolysis and product studies.

The reactions of SO4.- with 2'-deoxycytidine 1a and cytidine 1b lead to very different intermediates (base radicals with 1a, sugar radicals with 1b). The present study provides spectral and kinetic data for the various intermediates by pulse radiolysis as well as information on final product yields (free cytosine). Taking these and literature data into account allows us to substantiate but also modify in essential aspects the current mechanistic concept (H. Catterall, M. J. Davies and B. C. Gilbert, J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 2, 1992, 1379). SO4.- radicals have been generated radiolytically in the reaction of peroxodisulfate with the hydrated electron (and the H. atom). In the reaction of SO4.- with 1a (k = 1.6 x 10(9) dm3 mol-1 s-1), a transient (lambda max = 400 nm, shifted to 450 nm at pH 3) is observed. This absorption is due to two intermediates. The major component (lambda max approximately 385 nm) does not react with O2 and has been attributed to an N-centered radical 4a formed upon sulfate release and deprotonation at nitrogen. The minor component, rapidly wiped out by O2, must be due to C-centered OH-adduct radical(s) 6a and/or 7a suggested to be formed by a water-induced nucleophilic replacement. These radicals decay by second-order kinetics. Free cytosine is only formed in low yields (G = 0.14 x 10(-7) mol J-1 upon electron-beam irradiation). In contrast, 1b gives rise to an intermediate absorbing at lambda max = 530 nm (shifted to 600 nm in acid solution) which rapidly decays (k = 6 x 10(4) s-1). In the presence of O2, the decay is much faster (k approximately 1.3 x 10(9) dm3 mol-1 s-1) indicating that this species must be a C-centered radical. This has been attributed to the C(5)-yl radical 8 formed upon the reaction of the C(2')-OH group with the cytidine SO4(.-)-adduct radical 2b. This reaction competes very effectively with the corresponding reaction of water and the release of sulfate and a proton generating the N-centered radical. Upon the decay of 8, sugar radical 11 is formed with the release of cytosine. The latter is formed with a G value of 2.8 x 10(-7) mol J-1 (85% of primary SO4.-) at high dose rates (electron beam irradiation). At low dose rates (gamma-radiolysis) its yield is increased to 7 x 10(-7) mol J-1 due to a chain reaction involving peroxodisulfate and reducing free radicals. Phosphate buffer prevents the formation of the sugar radical at the SO4(.-)-adduct stage by enhancing the rate of sulfate release by deprotonation of 2b and also by speeding up the decay of the C(5)-yl radical into another (base) radical. Cytosine release in cytidine is mechanistically related to strand breakage in poly(C). Literature data on the effect of dioxygen on strand breakage yields in poly(C) induced by SO4.- (suppressed) and upon photoionisation (unaltered) lead us to conclude that in poly(C) and also in the present system free radical cations are not involved to a major extent. This conclusion modifies an essential aspect of the current mechanistic concept.

Photodegradation of the cytosine nucleosides family by water-soluble iron(III) porphyrins.

Aqueous solutions of cytosine nucleosides such as cytidine (C),2'-deoxycytidine (dC),2',3'-dideoxycytidine (ddC), and 1-beta-D-arabinofuranosylcytosine (ara-C) were irradiated with visible light in the presence of a water-soluble iron(III) porphyrin photocatalyst (FeIIITMPyP or FeIIITSPP) in air or under an argon atmosphere. HPLC analyses revealed release of cytosine as a dominant reaction. In the case of the irradiations of isomeric C and ara-C, their interconversion was also observed as a minor reaction. Under an argon atmosphere, a stoichiometric reduction of the catalyst into FeIITMPyP or FeIITSPP was observable by UV-vis spectroscopy. Quantum yields for the cytosine release and the catalyst reduction (phi cyt and phi FeII) were very much dependent both on the presence and the stereochemistry of the 2'-OH group. For the FeIIITMPyP case, for example, (a) phi cyt and phi FeII decreased in the order C > ara-C > dC > ddC and (b) oxygen lowered the phi cyt of dC and ddC but not phi cyt of C and ara-C. These results strongly support the previously proposed mechanism, i.e., C and ara-C undergo the reaction via a C2' carbon radical (e.g., eq 4) and dC and ddC undergo the reaction via a C1' or C4' carbon radical (e.g., eq 3). The observed effects of 2-propanol and solution pH suggest that a main reactive species photogenerated from FeTSPP is a free hydroxyl radical (*OH), while that photogenerated from FeTMPyP is probably an iron-coordinated active oxygen species (crypto-OH or Fe = O).

The degree of ultraviolet light damage to DNA containing iododeoxyuridine or bromodeoxyuridine is dependent on the DNA sequence.

The sequence selectivity of 300 nm ultraviolet light damage to DNA containing bromodeoxyuridine or iododeoxyuridine was examined on DNA sequencing gels. This was accomplished using a system where an M13 template was employed to direct synthesis of DNA in which thymidine was fully substituted with bromodeoxyuridine or iododeoxyuridine. The sites of damage corresponded to the positions of analogue incorporation. The extent of damage varied considerably at different sites of cleavage and ranged from the undetectable to over fifteen times the limit of detection (as assessed by laser densitometer scans). Strong damage sites had the "consensus" sequence CTT while sites of no detectable damage had the "consensus" sequence GTR. Bromodeoxyuridine and iododeoxyuridine had the same sites of damage although the extent of damage varied at different sites and bromodeoxyuridine damage was slightly greater than iododeoxyuridine. DNA containing thymidine was not damaged to any detectable level in this system with 300 nm ultraviolet light. The use of three closely related DNA sequences as targets for damage confirmed that (1) the sites of analogue incorporation are the cause of ultraviolet damage; and (2) that the neighbouring DNA sequence is an important parameter in determining the extent of damage. It is proposed that the microstructure of DNA--in particular the distance between the 5-carbon of the pyrimidine base (which is attached to the halogen) and hydrogen on the 2' carbon of the 5'-deoxyribose--ultimately determines the degree of cleavage with large distances giving a small degree of damage and smaller distances a large degree of damage.