William Boog Leishman: parasitologist and politician.

Famous for the discovery of the parasite, Leishmania, named after him, and the invention of Leishman's stain, William Boog Leishman should perhaps be better known for his work in military and public health, particularly the prevention of typhoid. Leishman was a Medical Officer in the British Army from 1887 until his death in 1926. His early research was on diseases affecting troops posted to stations within the British Empire. He saw cases of Leishmaniasis while stationed in India, and was able to identify the causative organism from his detailed records of his observations. Leishman's most important contribution to public health, however, was his work with typhoid, a major cause of morbidity and mortality in the army. Leishman planned experiments and the collection of data to demonstrate the efficacy of anti-typhoid inoculation and, using his considerable political skills, advocated the adoption of the vaccine. He planned for the inoculation of troops in an emergency so, when war broke out in 1914, the vaccine was available to save thousands of lives. Leishman's colleagues and mentors included Ronald Ross and Almroth Wright. Leishman was less outspoken than either Ross or Wright; this paper shows how the different contributions of the three men overlapped.

William Boog Leishman-A Brief Reminder of His Life and Work on the Occasion of His 150th Birthday.

William Boog Leishman was born 150 years ago. Although his description of "small round or oval bodies" in a smear from the spleen pulp of a soldier who had died of kala-azar was not the first one of Leishmania and although Leishman did not make the diagnosis of kala-azar and misinterpreted the microorganisms to be trypanosomes, his article became the springboard for a series of studies that, within a few months, established Leishmania as a previously unknown genus of protozoa and led to appreciation of the clinical spectrum of kala-azar and the relationship between cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis.

In Commemoration of Dr. Farrokh Modabber: An Iranian Pioneer of Cellular Immunology, and Leishmaniases Vaccine Research in Iran and the World.

Born in 1940 in Rasht, Iran, Dr. Farrokh Modabber earned his B.A. in Bacteriology and Ph.D. in Microbiology from University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). He joined the Harvard Medical School as a fellow before transitioning to a faculty role at Harvard School of Public Health (HSPH) and played a pivotal role in advancing Cellular Immunology. In the early 1970s, he returned to Iran as an Associate Professor at Pahlavi University in Shiraz. Subsequently, he rejoined HSPH before embarking on a tenure at Tehran University. As the head of the Pathobiology Department at Tehran University School of Public Health, he initiated the Tehran/Harvard joint M.Sc. program in Immunology, which played a crucial role in shaping the careers of numerous Iranian immunologists over the following decades. Dr. Modabber went on to hold esteemed positions such as Director General of the Pasteur Institute of Iran, visiting immunology lecturer at various universities, Coordinator of Research Capability Strengthening of WHO's Special Program for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases (TDR), Director of the Infectious Disease Research Institute (IDRI), and Senior Advisor of Drugs for Neglected Diseases initiative (DNDi), to name a few. This article highlights Dr. Modabber's impactful career, focusing on his efforts to combat global leishmaniasis.

[Milestones and major results of studies on leishmaniasis and sand fly fevers in Turkmenistan].

Among the countries endemic for tropical diseases, Turkmenistan along with Uzbekistan has a special role to play in having basic scientific knowledge of leishmaniasis. This article summarizes the principal scientific findings in the course of the 20th century in respect of leishmaniasis and sand fly fevers. The most important results of studies on cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis are cited. The role of different researchers in the epidemiology, epizootology, natural focality of these diseases, their clinical aspects, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention are described in detail. The paper gives information obtained by the latest studies on the etiology of leishmaniasis. The most important publications on this topic are assessed. Particular emphasis is laid on the results of the Anti-Leishmaniasis Expedition carried out by the researchers of the E.I. Martsinovsky Institute of Medical Parasitology and Tropical Medicine to the Tedjen oasis of Turkmenistan.

History of the E.I. Martsinovsky Institute of Medical Parasitology and Tropical Medicine: research on malaria and leishmaniasis.

This review presents the 100-year history of the Martsinovsky Institute of Medical Parasitology and Tropical Medicine in Moscow, Russia, starting with its foundation and early activities, and also describes the impact of its leading scientists, some of whom became internationally known. The institute headed a network of nine tropical institutes in the various Soviet republics from the 1920s to 1990. The extensive body of literature on the history and research accomplishments of this institute has mainly been published in Russian; our goal here is to introduce these achievements and this expertise to the international scientific and medical community, focusing on malaria and leishmaniasis and the development of measures to control and monitor these diseases in the USSR.

Implication of Phlebotomus sand flies as vectors of bartonellosis and leishmaniasis as early as 1764.

A written account implicating Phlebotomus sand flies as vectors of Carrion's disease and cutaneous leishmaniasis in Peru was published by Cosme Bueno in 1764. Bueno's report precedes other publications implicating sand flies in the transmission of human pathogens by nearly a century and a half.

Leishmania: origin, evolution and future since the Precambrian.

This brief review discusses the history of leishmaniasis, considering its origin from the Paleoartic, Neoartic or Neotropic. We reassess some of the theories of the likely origin of this protozoan since the beginning of life on Earth, passing through the Mesozoic and continuing to the appearance of humans. The relationship between this parasite or its ancestors, possible vectors and hosts with regard to ecological modifications is discussed. Recent molecular techniques have helped to elucidate some of the evolutionary questions regarding Leishmania, but have also brought doubts about the origin and evolution of this human parasite. PCR has been used for studies in the new discipline of paleoparasitology, helping to elucidate some of the remaining evolutionary questions. Understanding of this global condition is fundamental in determining the best approach to use against the parasite, specifically for the development of an efficient vaccine.

Muito além de uma história das leishmanioses no Novo Mundo / Far more than a history of leishmaniasis in the New World

Nesta obra, os autores não se limitaram à análise do objeto central da obra, isto é, a história das leishmanioses, mas também lançaram luz sobre pesquisas desenvolvidas acerca de várias enfermidades como malária, filariose, tripanossomíases, arboviroses, entre outras. No novo volume, é dada atenção especial ao papel desempenhado pela London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine e pelo parasitologista britânico Percy Cyril Claude Garnham na construção de uma nova rede centrada em nova abordagem, menos antropocêntrica e com maior interesse pelas zoonoses. A obra examina em detalhes a relação entre urbanização, surtos e expansão geográfica das leishmanioses tegumentares e a criação da Zona Franca de Manaus, a exploração de minério em Carajás e Pitinga, o projeto de produção de celulose em Jari e a construção das rodovias Transamazônica e Belém-Brasília, da hidrelétrica de Balbina e do gasoduto Coari-Manaus.O livro, portanto, apresenta uma perspectiva dinâmica sobre a pesquisa científica na região amazônica e as complexas interações entre saúde pública, desenvolvimento econômico e transformações socioambientais

Revisión de la obra sanitaria de Fernando Camúñez del Puerto (1883-1952) / Review of the sanitary work by Fernando Camúñez del Puerto (1883-1952)

En este trabajo presentamos la biografía académica y el estudio de las publicaciones científicas realizadas por Fernando Camúñez del Puerto (1883-1952), incluyendo su tesis doctoral sobre la leishmaniasis, defendida en 1913 y publicada al año siguiente. Exponemos también sus cargos profesionales en el Laboratorio Municipal de Higiene, el Instituto Provincial de Higiene y la Facultad de Medicina de Cádiz. En esta última institución fue Escultor Anatómico y profesor de Histología. Concluimos nuestro estudio aportando documentación sobre los últimos años de su vida y su enfermedad, relacionada con su ejercicio profesional (AU)

In this work, we present the academic biography and the study of the scientific publications made by Fernando Camúñez del Puerto (1883-1952), including his doctoral thesis on leishmaniasis, defended in 1913 and published the following year. We also present his professional positions in the Municipal Laboratory of Hygiene, the Provincial Institute of Hygiene and the Faculty of Medicine of Cadiz. In this last institution, he was an Anatomical Sculptor and Professor of Histology. We conclude our study by providing documentation on the last years of his life and his illness, related to his professional practice (AU)

The tropics, science, and leishmaniasis: an analysis of the circulation of knowledge and asymmetries. / Trópicos, ciência e leishmanioses: uma análise sobre circulação de saberes e assimetrias.

The article investigates the process of circulation of knowledge which occurred during the first decades of the twentieth century between the South American researchers Edmundo Escomel (Peru) and Alfredo Da Matta (Brazil) and the Europeans Alphonse Laveran (France) and Patrick Manson (England) with regard to the definition and validation of espundia as a disease specific to South America, while simultaneously the need to insert this illness into the newly created group of diseases called the "leishmaniasis" was proposed. Sharing recent concerns in considering historical research beyond the limits imposed by the Nation-state as a category that organizes narratives, it dialogs with some apologists of global and transnational history, situating this specific case within this analytical perspective.

O artigo investiga o processo de circulação de saberes ocorrido, nas primeiras décadas do século XX, entre os pesquisadores sul-americanos Edmundo Escomel (Peru) e Alfredo Da Matta (Brasil) e os europeus Alphonse Laveran (França) e Patrick Manson (Inglaterra) no que diz respeito à definição e validação da espundia como uma enfermidade particularizada da América do Sul, ao mesmo tempo que se postulava a necessidade do seu enquadramento no recém-criado grupo de moléstias denominado "leishmanioses". Compartilhando a recente preocupação em pensar a pesquisa histórica para além dos limites impostos pelo Estado nacional como categoria organizadora da narrativa, dialoga com alguns apologistas da história global/transnacional situando o caso específico nessa perspectiva analítica.

The history of leishmaniasis.

In this review article the history of leishmaniasis is discussed regarding the origin of the genus Leishmania in the Mesozoic era and its subsequent geographical distribution, initial evidence of the disease in ancient times, first accounts of the infection in the Middle Ages, and the discovery of Leishmania parasites as causative agents of leishmaniasis in modern times. With respect to the origin and dispersal of Leishmania parasites, the three currently debated hypotheses (Palaearctic, Neotropical and supercontinental origin, respectively) are presented. Ancient documents and paleoparasitological data indicate that leishmaniasis was already widespread in antiquity. Identification of Leishmania parasites as etiological agents and sand flies as the transmission vectors of leishmaniasis started at the beginning of the 20th century and the discovery of new Leishmania and sand fly species continued well into the 21st century. Lately, the Syrian civil war and refugee crises have shown that leishmaniasis epidemics can happen any time in conflict areas and neighbouring regions where the disease was previously endemic.

A History of Leishmaniasis in Iran from 19th Century Onward.

The history of leishmaniasis dates back to the distant past; however, its etiologic agent was unidentified until the mid-19th century. Here is an overview of some historical aspects of leishmaniasis in Iran mainly focused on the cutaneous form, from the mid-19th century onwards. In addition, short biographies of several contemporary researchers and experts of leishmaniasis and their achievements in the past decades are presented.

A Historical Overview of the Classification, Evolution, and Dispersion of Leishmania Parasites and Sandflies.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study is to describe the major evolutionary historical events among Leishmania, sandflies, and the associated animal reservoirs in detail, in accordance with the geographical evolution of the Earth, which has not been previously discussed on a large scale. METHODOLOGY AND PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Leishmania and sandfly classification has always been a controversial matter, and the increasing number of species currently described further complicates this issue. Despite several hypotheses on the origin, evolution, and distribution of Leishmania and sandflies in the Old and New World, no consistent agreement exists regarding dissemination of the actors that play roles in leishmaniasis. For this purpose, we present here three centuries of research on sandflies and Leishmania descriptions, as well as a complete description of Leishmania and sandfly fossils and the emergence date of each Leishmania and sandfly group during different geographical periods, from 550 million years ago until now. We discuss critically the different approaches that were used for Leishmana and sandfly classification and their synonymies, proposing an updated classification for each species of Leishmania and sandfly. We update information on the current distribution and dispersion of different species of Leishmania (53), sandflies (more than 800 at genus or subgenus level), and animal reservoirs in each of the following geographical ecozones: Palearctic, Nearctic, Neotropic, Afrotropical, Oriental, Malagasy, and Australian. We propose an updated list of the potential and proven sandfly vectors for each Leishmania species in the Old and New World. Finally, we address a classical question about digenetic Leishmania evolution: which was the first host, a vertebrate or an invertebrate? CONCLUSIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE: We propose an updated view of events that have played important roles in the geographical dispersion of sandflies, in relation to both the Leishmania species they transmit and the animal reservoirs of the parasites.

Stages in the identification of phlebotomine sandflies as vectors of leishmaniases and other tropical diseases.

The first time the term phlebotomine sandfly was used, was by an Italian naturalist, Philippo Bonanni, in 1691. The first description though was made by another Italian naturalist, Scopoli, under the name Bibio papatasi. The name of the genus, Phlebotomus, was not given until 1840 by Rondani and Berté. The first description of an American phlebotomine sandfly was made by Coquillett, in 1907. The discovery of the three first sandflies in Brazil is the work of Lutz and Neiva, in 1912. From this date till 1921, 11 new species were described in this country and since then their number is still increasing and has reached 229 at this time. The history of the identification of phlebotomine sandflies as vectors, in Brazil like elsewhere in South America, is as complex as the one of the leishmaniases themselves, to which it is closely linked. The knowledge of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Brazil goes back to 1909, when Gaspar Vianna proposed to name the parasites that were found Leishmania braziliensis (1911). Following the observation of the Sergent brothers on the role of Phlebotomus papatasi in the transmission of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Algeria (1921), it became obvious that phlebotomine sandflies should be incriminated as vectors of cutaneous leishmaniasis in the Americas and that proof should be sought of their role. This is what various Brazilian scientists have done, like Aragão in 1922, Pessôa and Pestana in 1940. In the 1950s evidence was produced that the different forms of leishmaniasis that infest the American continent were caused by distinct species of the parasite. Subsequently, successful searches for the specific vectors were carried out. A by-product of the epidemiological studies of leishmaniases has been the discovery of the transmission of other parasites of the Trypanosomatid families (Crithidia, Endotrypanum, Trypanosoma). More recently, since the 1960s, a large number of viruses amongst which Rhabdoviridae, Bunyaviridae and Reoviridae, have been isolated from phlebotomine sandflies. Between 1961 and 1995, 69 serotypes of different arboviruses were obtained from different zones of Brazilian Amazonia.

History of the E.I. Martsinovsky Institute of Medical Parasitology and Tropical Medicine: research on malaria and leishmaniasis / História do Instituto E.I. Martsinovsky de Parasitologia Médica e Medicina Tropical: pesquisa sobre malária e leishmaniose

Abstract This review presents the 100-year history of the Martsinovsky Institute of Medical Parasitology and Tropical Medicine in Moscow, Russia, starting with its foundation and early activities, and also describes the impact of its leading scientists, some of whom became internationally known. The institute headed a network of nine tropical institutes in the various Soviet republics from the 1920s to 1990. The extensive body of literature on the history and research accomplishments of this institute has mainly been published in Russian; our goal here is to introduce these achievements and this expertise to the international scientific and medical community, focusing on malaria and leishmaniasis and the development of measures to control and monitor these diseases in the USSR.

Resumo O artigo analisa a história centenária do Instituto Martsinovsky de Parasitologia Médica e Medicina Tropical em Moscou, Rússia, desde sua fundação e primeiras atividades, e descreve a influência de seus principais cientistas, alguns dos quais viriam a conquistar renome internacional. O instituto liderou uma rede de nove institutos tropicais em diversas repúblicas soviéticas entre as décadas de 1920 e 1990. A vasta literatura sobre o trabalho de história e pesquisa desse instituto foi publicada sobretudo em russo; nosso objetivo aqui é apresentar esse trabalho e conhecimento à comunidade médica e científica internacional, concentrando-se na malária e na leishmaniose e no avanço de medidas de controle e monitoramento dessas doenças na URSS.

Leishmania tarentolae molecular signatures in a 300 hundred-years-old human Brazilian mummy.

BACKGROUND: L. tarentolae, the lizard-infecting species of Old World geckos, has been classified as non-pathogenic to man. While it has been demonstrated that L. tarentolae is capable of infecting human phagocytic cells and to differentiate into amastigote-like forms, there is no clear evidence for its efficient replication within macrophages. Here we provide first evidence for L. tarentolae ancient DNA sequences from bone marrow and intestines of a 300yo adult male. METHODS: We identified molecular signatures of Leishmania tarentolae, the lizard-infecting species of Old World geckos, in hard and soft tissue biopsies from a Brazilian mummy (A74) uncovered in Itacambira (Brazil) and dating to the Colonial Period (end of 18th/beginning of the 19th century). RESULTS: Our results imply that efficient replication of the parasite occurred within human macrophage and to lead to a systemic spread and visceralization in this individual. The ancient sequences show a 100% similarity with those of isolated L. tarentolae parasites grown on artificial nutrient media and a 99% similarity with two modern sequences isolated from reptiles. CONCLUSIONS: De facto, our findings re-open the debate about the potential survival of ancient L. tarentolae strain within human macrophage and its ability to spread systemically. They also raise ecological issues since it is unknown whether this parasite circulates in the reptilian reservoir in modern day Brazil or not. Investigations on fossil fauna and arthropods are needed to shed light on the interactions between saurian Leishmania and lizards in Brazil's remote and recent past.

Leishmaniasis in Colombia, a review.

A review is made of 60 publications on leishmaniasis in Colombia reported between 1889 and the present. A serious source of difficulty in interpreting the literature is the frequent discussion of "cases" (1,536 of 1,865, or 82%) that were never confirmed by observation of the parasite or by positive immunological tests. The apparent distribution of the disease is considerably biased by the real distribution of physicians. Nevertheless, laboratory-confirmed cutaneous leishmaniasis has been reported from most humid, lowland regions, and apparently the disease is endemic in nearly all the administrative sections of the country. Mucocutaneous involvement seems to occur in around 25% of the cases. Visceral leishmaniasis is seldom reported and is known to occur only in the Magdalena River basin. There have been no surveys to identify arthropod vectors or wild reservoir hosts, although two naturally infected dogs were associated with one of the visceral leishmaniasis cases. Leishmaniasis is a seldom diagnosed but major health problem in several regions of Colombia, in terms of the number of persons affected and the difficulty of obtaining treatment.

Leishmaniasis.

Leishmaniasis is a parasitic infection caused by many species of the protozoa Leishmania. It occurs in endemic foci scattered throughout Asia, Africa, the Americas, and the Mediterranean countries. The disease is complex and may simulate many skin and systemic diseases. With awareness and suspicion, however, leishmaniasis is relatively easy to diagnose. Undiagnosed, it causes considerable morbidity and mortality. Treatment is often difficult, and current therapies leave much to be desired.