Engineering of a chitin deacetylase to generate tailor-made chitosan polymers.

Chitin deacetylases (CDAs) emerge as a valuable tool to produce chitosans with a nonrandom distribution of N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) and glucosamine (GlcN) units. We hypothesized before that CDAs tend to bind certain sequences within the substrate matching their subsite preferences for either GlcNAc or GlcN units. Thus, they deacetylate or N-acetylate their substrates at nonrandom positions. To understand the molecular basis of these preferences, we analyzed the binding site of a CDA from Pestalotiopsis sp. (PesCDA) using a detailed activity screening of a site-saturation mutagenesis library. In addition, molecular dynamics simulations were conducted to get an in-depth view of crucial interactions along the binding site. Besides elucidating the function of several amino acids, we were able to show that only 3 residues are responsible for the highly specific binding of PesCDA to oligomeric substrates. The preference to bind a GlcNAc unit at subsite -2 and -1 can mainly be attributed to N75 and H199, respectively. Whereas an exchange of N75 at subsite -2 eliminates enzyme activity, H199 can be substituted with tyrosine to increase the GlcN acceptance at subsite -1. This change in substrate preference not only increases enzyme activity on certain substrates and changes composition of oligomeric products but also significantly changes the pattern of acetylation (PA) when N-acetylating polyglucosamine. Consequently, we could clearly show how subsite preferences influence the PA of chitosans produced with CDAs.

An architecturally rational hemostat for rapid stopping of massive bleeding on anticoagulation therapy.

Hemostatic devices are critical for managing emergent severe bleeding. With the increased use of anticoagulant therapy, there is a need for next-generation hemostats. We rationalized that a hemostat with an architecture designed to increase contact with blood, and engineered from a material that activates a distinct and undrugged coagulation pathway can address the emerging need. Inspired by lung alveolar architecture, here, we describe the engineering of a next-generation single-phase chitosan hemostat with a tortuous spherical microporous design that enables rapid blood absorption and concentrated platelets and fibrin microthrombi in localized regions, a phenomenon less observed with other classical hemostats without structural optimization. The interaction between blood components and the porous hemostat was further amplified based on the charged surface of chitosan. Contrary to the dogma that chitosan does not directly affect physiological clotting mechanism, the hemostat induced coagulation via a direct activation of platelet Toll-like receptor 2. Our engineered porous hemostat effectively stopped the bleeding from murine liver wounds, swine liver and carotid artery injuries, and the human radial artery puncture site within a few minutes with significantly reduced blood loss, even under the anticoagulant treatment. The integration of engineering design principles with an understanding of the molecular mechanisms can lead to hemostats with improved functions to address emerging medical needs.

Chitin utilization by marine picocyanobacteria and the evolution of a planktonic lifestyle.

Marine picocyanobacteria Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus, the most abundant photosynthetic cells in the oceans, are generally thought to have a primarily single-celled and free-living lifestyle. However, while studying the ability of picocyanobacteria to supplement photosynthetic carbon fixation with the use of exogenous organic carbon, we found the widespread occurrence of genes for breaking down chitin, an abundant source of organic carbon that exists primarily as particles. We show that cells that encode a chitin degradation pathway display chitin degradation activity, attach to chitin particles, and show enhanced growth under low light conditions when exposed to chitosan, a partially deacetylated soluble form of chitin. Marine chitin is largely derived from arthropods, which underwent major diversifications 520 to 535 Mya, close to when marine picocyanobacteria are inferred to have appeared in the ocean. Phylogenetic analyses confirm that the chitin utilization trait was acquired at the root of marine picocyanobacteria. Together this leads us to postulate that attachment to chitin particles allowed benthic cyanobacteria to emulate their mat-based lifestyle in the water column, initiating their expansion into the open ocean, seeding the rise of modern marine ecosystems. Subsequently, transitioning to a constitutive planktonic life without chitin associations led to cellular and genomic streamlining along a major early branch within Prochlorococcus. Our work highlights how the emergence of associations between organisms from different trophic levels, and their coevolution, creates opportunities for colonizing new environments. In this view, the rise of ecological complexity and the expansion of the biosphere are deeply intertwined processes.

Nasal delivery of polymeric nanoDisc mobilizes a synergy of central and peripheral amyloid-ß clearance to treat Alzheimer's disease.

The disequilibrium of amyloid ß-peptide (Aß) between the central and peripheral pools has been claimed as an initiating event in Alzheimer's disease (AD). In this study, we employ discoidal high-density lipoproteins (HDL-Disc) mimicking Aß antibody for directional flux of Aß from central to peripheral catabolism, with desirable safety and translation potential. Structurally, HDL-Disc assembly (polyDisc) is prepared with aid of chitosan derivative polymerization. After intranasal administration and response to slightly acidic nasal microenvironment, polyDisc depolymerizes into carrier-free HDL-Disc with chitosan derivatives that adhere to the mucosal layer to reversibly open tight junctions, helping HDL-Disc penetrate the olfactory pathway into brain. Thereafter, HDL-Disc captures Aß into microglia for central clearance or ferries Aß out of the brain for liver-mediated compensatory catabolism. For synergy therapy, intranasal administration of polyDisc can effectively reduce intracerebral Aß burden by 97.3% and vascular Aß burden by 73.5%, ameliorate neurologic damage, and rescue memory deficits in APPswe/PS1dE9 transgenic AD mice with improved safety, especially vascular safety. Collectively, this design provides a proof of concept for developing Aß antibody mimics to mobilize a synergy of central and peripheral Aß clearance for AD treatment.

A Review: Uses of Chitosan in Pharmaceutical Forms.

Chitosan is a natural polysaccharide widespread in nature. It has many unique and attractive properties for the pharmaceutical field: it is biodegradable, safe, hypoallergenic, biocompatible with the body, free of toxicity, with proven anticholesterolemic, antibacterial, and antimycotic action. In this review we highlighted the physical, chemical, mechanical, mucoadhesive, etc. properties of chitosan to be taken into account when obtaining various pharmaceutical forms. The methods by which the pharmaceutical forms based on chitosan are obtained are very extensive, and in this study only the most common ones were presented.

Chitosan: An Adjuvant with an Unanticipated STING.

Adjuvants promote adaptive immunity through the triggering of innate signals that are largely poorly understood. In this issue of Immunity, Lavelle and colleagues describe an unexpected role for the DNA sensing cGAS-STING pathway in the mechanism of action of the Th1 cell-promoting polysaccharide adjuvant chitosan.

The Vaccine Adjuvant Chitosan Promotes Cellular Immunity via DNA Sensor cGAS-STING-Dependent Induction of Type I Interferons.

The cationic polysaccharide chitosan is an attractive candidate adjuvant capable of driving potent cell-mediated immunity, but the mechanism by which it acts is not clear. We show that chitosan promotes dendritic cell maturation by inducing type I interferons (IFNs) and enhances antigen-specific T helper 1 (Th1) responses in a type I IFN receptor-dependent manner. The induction of type I IFNs, IFN-stimulated genes and dendritic cell maturation by chitosan required the cytoplasmic DNA sensor cGAS and STING, implicating this pathway in dendritic cell activation. Additionally, this process was dependent on mitochondrial reactive oxygen species and the presence of cytoplasmic DNA. Chitosan-mediated enhancement of antigen specific Th1 and immunoglobulin G2c responses following vaccination was dependent on both cGAS and STING. These findings demonstrate that a cationic polymer can engage the STING-cGAS pathway to trigger innate and adaptive immune responses.

OphthalMimic: A new alternative apparatus without animal tissue for the evaluation of topical ophthalmic drug products.

The necessity of animal-free performance tests for novel ophthalmic formulation screening is challenging. For this, we developed and validated a new device to simulate the dynamics and physical-chemical barriers of the eye for in vitro performance tests of topic ophthalmic formulations. The OphthalMimic is a 3D-printed device with an artificial lacrimal flow, a cul-de-sac area, a support base, and a simulated cornea comprised of a polymeric membrane containing poly-vinyl alcohol 10 % (w/v), gelatin 2.5 % (w/v), and different proportions of mucin and poloxamer, i.e., 1:1 (M1), 1:2 (M2), and 2:1 (M3) w/v, respectively. The support base is designed to move between 0° and 50° to replicate the movement of an eyelid. We challenged the model by testing the residence performance of poloxamer®407 16 % and poloxamer®407 16 % + chitosan 1 % (PLX16CS10) gels containing fluconazole. The test was conducted with a simulated tear flow of 1.0 mL.min-1 for 5 min. The OphthalMimic successfully distinguished PLX16 and PLX16C10 formulations based on their fluconazole drainage (M1: 65 ± 14 % and 27 ± 10 %; M2: 58 ± 6 % and 38 ± 9 %; M3: 56 ± 5 % and 38 ± 18 %). In conclusion, the OphthalMimic is a promising tool for comparing the animal-free performance of ophthalmic formulations.

Dry double-sided tape for adhesion of wet tissues and devices.

Two dry surfaces can instantly adhere upon contact with each other through intermolecular forces such as hydrogen bonds, electrostatic interactions and van der Waals interactions1,2. However, such instant adhesion is challenging when wet surfaces such as body tissues are involved, because water separates the molecules of the two surfaces, preventing interactions3,4. Although tissue adhesives have potential advantages over suturing or stapling5,6, existing liquid or hydrogel tissue adhesives suffer from several limitations: weak bonding, low biological compatibility, poor mechanical match with tissues, and slow adhesion formation5-13. Here we propose an alternative tissue adhesive in the form of a dry double-sided tape (DST) made from a combination of a biopolymer (gelatin or chitosan) and crosslinked poly(acrylic acid) grafted with N-hydrosuccinimide ester. The adhesion mechanism of this DST relies on the removal of interfacial water from the tissue surface, resulting in fast temporary crosslinking to the surface. Subsequent covalent crosslinking with amine groups on the tissue surface further improves the adhesion stability and strength of the DST. In vitro mouse, in vivo rat and ex vivo porcine models show that the DST can achieve strong adhesion between diverse wet dynamic tissues and engineering solids within five seconds. The DST may be useful as a tissue adhesive and sealant, and in adhering wearable and implantable devices to wet tissues.

Facile Fabrication of Multifunctional Hydrogel Nanoweb Coating Using Carboxymethyl Chitosan-Based Short Nanofibers for Blood-Contacting Medical Devices.

Blood-contacting medical devices (BCDs) require antithrombotic, antibacterial, and low-friction surfaces. Incorporating a nanostructured surface with the functional hydrogel onto BCD surfaces can enhance the performances; however, their fabrication remains challenging. Here, we introduce a straightforward method to fabricate a multifunctional hydrogel-based nanostructure on BCD surfaces using O-carboxymethyl chitosan-based short nanofibers (CMC-SNFs). CMC-SNFs, fabricated via electrospinning and cutting processes, are easily sprayed and entangled onto the BCD surface. The deposited CMC-SNFs form a robust nanoweb layer via fusion at the contact area of the nanofiber interfaces. The superhydrophilic CMC-SNF nanoweb surface creates a water-bound layer that effectively prevents the nonspecific adhesion of bacteria and blood cells, thereby enhancing both antimicrobial and antithrombotic performances. Furthermore, the CMC-SNF nanoweb exhibits excellent lubricity and durability on the bovine aorta. The demonstration results of the CMC-SNF coating on catheters and sheaths provide evidence of its capability to apply multifunctional surfaces simply for diverse BCDs.

A "Ferroptosis-Amplifier" Hydrogel for Eliminating Refractory Cancer Stem Cells Post-lumpectomy.

The unique "Iron Addiction" feature of cancer stem cells (CSCs) with tumorigenicity and plasticity generally contributes to the tumor recurrence and metastasis after a lumpectomy. Herein, a novel "Ferroptosis Amplification" strategy is developed based on integrating gallic acid-modified FeOOH (GFP) and gallocyanine into Pluronic F-127 (F127) and carboxylated chitosan (CC)-based hydrogel for CSCs eradication. This "Ferroptosis Amplifier" hydrogel is thermally sensitive and achieves rapid gelation at the postsurgical wound in a breast tumor model. Specifically, gallocyanine, as the Dickkopf-1 (DKK1) inhibitor, can decrease the expression of SLC7A11 and GPX4 and synergistically induce ferroptosis of CSCs with GFP. Encouragingly, it is found that this combination suppresses the migratory and invasive capability of cancer cells via the downregulation of matrix metalloproteinase 7 (MMP7). The in vivo results further confirm that this "Ferroptosis Amplification" strategy is efficient in preventing tumor relapse and lung metastasis, manifesting an effective and promising postsurgical treatment for breast cancer.

Dynamic Hybrid Module-Driven NK Cell Stimulation and Release for Tumor Immunotherapy.

Natural killer (NK) cells have become a powerful candidate for adoptive tumor immunotherapy, while their therapeutic efficacy in solid tumors remains unsatisfactory. Here, we developed a hybrid module with an injectable hydrogel and hydroxyapatite (HAp) nanobelts for the controlled delivery of NK cells to enhance the therapy of solid tumors. Surface-functionalized HAp nanobelts modified with agonistic antibodies against NKG2D and 4-1BB and cytokines IL-2 and IL-21 support survival and dynamic activation. Thus, the HAp-modified chitosan (CS) thermos-sensitive hydrogel not only improved the retention of NK cells for more than 20 days in vivo but also increased NK cell function by more than one-fold. The unique architecture of this biomaterial complex protects NK cells from the hostile tumor environment and improves antitumor efficacy. The generation of a transient inflammatory niche for NK cells through a biocompatible hydrogel reservoir may be a conversion pathway to prevent cancer recurrence of resectable tumors.

Sulfated Polysaccharide-Based Nanocarrier Drives Microenvironment-Mediated Cerebral Neurovascular Remodeling for Ischemic Stroke Treatment.

Stroke is a leading cause of global mortality and severe disability. However, current strategies used for treating ischemic stroke lack specific targeting capabilities, exhibit poor immune escape ability, and have limited drug release control. Herein, we developed an ROS-responsive nanocarrier for targeted delivery of the neuroprotective agent rapamycin (RAPA) to mitigate ischemic brain damage. The nanocarrier consisted of a sulfated chitosan (SCS) polymer core modified with a ROS-responsive boronic ester enveloped by a red blood cell membrane shell incorporating a stroke homing peptide. When encountering high levels of intracellular ROS in ischemic brain tissues, the release of SCS combined with RAPA from nanoparticle disintegration facilitates effective microglia polarization and, in turn, maintains blood-brain barrier integrity, reduces cerebral infarction, and promotes cerebral neurovascular remodeling in a mouse stroke model involving transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO). This work offers a promising strategy to treat ischemic stroke therapy.

Structural displacement model of chitooligosaccharide transport through chitoporin.

VhChiP is a chitooligosaccharide-specific porin identified in the outer membrane of Vibrio campbellii type strain American Type Culture Collection BAA 1116. VhChiP contains three identical subunits, and in each subunit, the 19-amino acid N-terminal segment serves as a molecular plug (the "N-plug") that controls the closed/open dynamics of the neighboring pores. In this study, the crystal structures of VhChiP lacking the N-plug were determined in the absence and presence of chitohexaose. Binding studies of sugar-ligand interactions by single-channel recordings and isothermal microcalorimetry experiments suggested that the deletion of the N-plug peptide significantly weakened the sugar-binding affinity due to the loss of hydrogen bonds around the central affinity sites. Steered molecular dynamic simulations revealed that the movement of the sugar chain along the sugar passage triggered the ejection of the N-plug, while the H-bonds transiently formed between the reducing end GlcNAc units of the sugar chain with the N-plug peptide may help to facilitate sugar translocation. The findings enable us to propose the structural displacement model, which enables us to understand the molecular basis of chitooligosaccharide uptake by marine Vibrio bacteria.

Additive and Specific Effects of Elicitor Treatments on the Metabolic Profile of Arabidopsis thaliana.

Several elicitors of plant defense have been identified and numerous efforts to use them in the field have been made. Exogenous elicitor treatments mimic the in planta activation of pattern-triggered immunity (PTI), which relies on the perception of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) such as bacterial flg22 or fungal chitins. Early transcriptional responses to distinct PAMPs are mostly overlapping, regardless of the elicitor being used. However, it remains poorly known if the same patterns are observed for metabolites and proteins produced later during PTI. In addition, little is known about the impact of a combination of elicitors on PTI and the level of induced resistance to pathogens. Here, we monitored Arabidopsis thaliana resistance to the bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 (Pto DC3000) following application of flg22 and chitosan elicitors, used individually or in combination. A slight, but not statistically significant increase in induced resistance was observed when the elicitors were applied together when compared with individual treatments. We investigated the effect of these treatments on the metabolome by using an untargeted analysis. We found that the combination of flg22 and chitosan impacted a higher number of metabolites and deregulated specific metabolic pathways compared with the elicitors individually. These results contribute to a better understanding of plant responses to elicitors, which might help better rationalize their use in the field. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

The LysM Receptor-Like Kinase SlLYK10 Controls Lipochitooligosaccharide Signaling in Inner Cell Layers of Tomato Roots.

Establishment of arbuscular mycorrhiza relies on a plant signaling pathway that can be activated by fungal chitinic signals such as short-chain chitooligosaccharides and lipo-chitooligosaccharides (LCOs). The tomato LysM receptor-like kinase SlLYK10 has high affinity for LCOs and is involved in root colonization by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF); however, its role in LCO responses has not yet been studied. Here, we show that SlLYK10 proteins produced by the Sllyk10-1 and Sllyk10-2 mutant alleles, which both cause decreases in AMF colonization and carry mutations in LysM1 and 2, respectively, have similar LCO-binding affinities compared to the WT SlLYK10. However, the mutant forms were no longer able to induce cell death in Nicotiana benthamiana when co-expressed with MtLYK3, a Medicago truncatula LCO co-receptor, while they physically interacted with MtLYK3 in co-purification experiments. This suggests that the LysM mutations affect the ability of SlLYK10 to trigger signaling through a potential co-receptor rather than its ability to bind LCOs. Interestingly, tomato lines that contain a calcium (Ca2+) concentration reporter [genetically encoded Ca2+ indicators (GECO)], showed Ca2+ spiking in response to LCO applications, but this occurred only in inner cell layers of the roots, while short-chain chitooligosaccharides also induced Ca2+ spiking in the epidermis. Moreover, LCO-induced Ca2+ spiking was decreased in Sllyk10-1*GECO plants, suggesting that the decrease in AMF colonization in Sllyk10-1 is due to abnormal LCO signaling.

A nanochitosan-D-galactose formulation increases the accumulation of primaquine in the liver.

Primaquine is the mainstream antimalarial drug to prevent Plasmodium vivax relapses. However, this drug can induce hemolysis in patients with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency. Nanostructure formulations of primaquine loaded with D-galactose were used as a strategy to target the drug to the liver and decrease the hemolytic risks. Nanoemulsion (NE-Pq) and nanochitosan (NQ-Pq) formulations of primaquine diphosphate containing D-galactose were prepared and characterized by their physicochemistry properties. Pharmacokinetic and biodistribution studies were conducted using Swiss Webster mice. A single dose of 10 mg/kg of each nanoformulation or free primaquine solution was administered by gavage to the animals, which were killed at 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, and 24 hours. Blood samples and tissues were collected, processed, and analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography. The nanoformulation showed sizes around 200 nm (NE-Pq) and 400 nm (NQ-Pq) and physicochemical stability for over 30 days. Free primaquine solution achieved higher primaquine Cmax in the liver than NE-Pq or NQ-Pq at 0.5 hours. However, the half-life and mean residence time (MRT) of primaquine in the liver were three times higher with the NQ-Pq formulation than with free primaquine, and the volume distribution was four times higher. Conversely, primaquine's half-life, MRT, and volume distribution in the plasma were lower for NQ-Pq than for free primaquine. NE-Pq, on the other hand, accumulated more in the lungs but not in the liver. Galactose-coated primaquine nanochitosan formulation showed increased drug targeting to the liver compared to free primaquine and may represent a promising strategy for a more efficient and safer radical cure for vivax malaria.

Oral administration of PEDV-dissolved Alg-CS gel induces high and sustained mucosal immunity in mice.

Porcine epidemic diarrhea (PED) is a serious disease in piglets that leads to high mortality. An effective measure that provides higher IgA levels in the intestine and milk is required to decrease losses. Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) was dissolved in calcium alginate (Alg) and combined with chitosan (CS) via electrostatic interactions between cationic chitosan and anionic alginate to create a porous gel (Alg-CS+PEDV). The gel was used to immunize mice orally or in combination with subcutaneous injections of inactivated PEDV vaccine. At 12 and 24 days after immunization, levels of IgA and IgG in Alg-CS+PEDV were higher than with normal PEDV oral administration. At 24 days after immunization, the concentration of IFN-γ in Alg-CS+PEDV was higher than with normal PEDV oral administration. Furthermore, oral administration combining subcutaneous immunization induced higher levels of IgG and IgA than oral administration alone. Our study provides a new method for the preparation and administration of oral vaccines to achieve enhanced mucosal immunity against PEDV.

Decellularized nucleus pulposus matrix/chitosan hybrid hydrogel combined with nucleus pulposus stem cells and GDF5-loaded microspheres for intervertebral disc degeneration prevention.

BACKGROUND: Intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD) is considered an important pathological basis for spinal degenerative diseases. Tissue engineering is a powerful therapeutic strategy that can effectively restore the normal biological properties of disc units. In this study, hydrogels loaded with growth/differentiation factor 5 (GDF5) and stem cells were combined to provide an effective strategy for nucleus pulposus regeneration. METHODS: Nucleus pulposus stem cells (NPSCs) were obtained by low-density inoculation and culture, and their stem cell characteristics were verified by flow cytometry and a tri-lineage-induced differentiation experiment. A decellularized nucleus pulposus matrix (DNPM) and chitosan hybrid hydrogel was prepared, and GDF5-loaded poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microspheres were incorporated into the hydrogels to obtain a composite hydrogels with GDF5-loaded microspheres. Taking bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) as a reference, the effect of composite hydrogels with GDF5-loaded microspheres on the chondrogenic differentiation of NPSCs was evaluated. A model of intervertebral disc degeneration induced by acupuncture on the tail of rats was constructed, and the repair effect of composite hydrogels with GDF5-loaded microspheres combined with NPSCs on IDD was observed. RESULTS: Stem cell phenotype identification, stemness gene expression and tri-lineage-induced differentiation confirmed that NPSCs had characteristics similar to those of BMSCs. The rat DNPM and chitosan hybrid hydrogels had good mechanical properties, and the GDF5-loaded microspheres sustainably released GDF5. NPSCs grew normally in the composite hydrogels and gradually expressed a chondrocyte phenotype. Animal experiments showed that the composite hydrogels with GDF5-loaded microspheres combined with NPSCs effectively promoted nucleus pulposus regeneration and that the effect of the hydrogels on the repair of IDD was significantly better than that of BMSCs. CONCLUSION: GDF5-loaded microspheres combined with DNPM/chitosan composite hydrogels can effectively promote the differentiation of NPSCs into nucleus pulposus-like cells and effectively preventIDD.

N-acetyl-ß-hexosaminidase activity is important for chitooligosaccharide metabolism and biofilm formation in Burkholderia pseudomallei.

Burkholderia pseudomallei is a saprophytic Gram-negative bacillus that can cause the disease melioidosis. Although B. pseudomallei is a recognised member of terrestrial soil microbiomes, little is known about its contribution to the saprophytic degradation of polysaccharides within its niche. For example, while chitin is predicted to be abundant within terrestrial soils the chitinolytic capacity of B. pseudomallei is yet to be defined. This study identifies and characterises a putative glycoside hydrolase, bpsl0500, which is expressed by B. pseudomallei K96243. Recombinant BPSL0500 was found to exhibit activity against substrate analogues and GlcNAc disaccharides relevant to chitinolytic N-acetyl-ß-d-hexosaminidases. In B. pseudomallei, bpsl0500 was found to be essential for both N-acetyl-ß-d-hexosaminidase activity and chitooligosaccharide metabolism. Furthermore, bpsl0500 was also observed to significantly affect biofilm deposition. These observations led to the identification of BPSL0500 activity against model disaccharide linkages that are present in biofilm exopolysaccharides, a feature that has not yet been described for chitinolytic enzymes. The results in this study indicate that chitinolytic N-acetyl-ß-d-hexosaminidases like bpsl0500 may facilitate biofilm disruption as well as chitin assimilation, providing dual functionality for saprophytic bacteria such as B. pseudomallei within the competitive soil microbiome.