Risk practices and awareness of leptospirosis amongst residents of Zaria, Nigeria.

This study evaluated the level of risk practices and awareness of leptospirosis among residents of Zaria, Nigeria. A pre-tested questionnaires were administered via face-to-face interview to 100 residents. The data was analyzed using chi-square and multivariate analysis to identify risk factors for leptospirosis. The demography showed that the majority of the respondents were male, aged 21-40 years, and majorly crop farmers. The risk factors identified showed that males were 4.14 times more likely to be affected by leptospirosis (OR 4.14, 95% CI [1.93-5.37], p = 0.02) and the source of animal's water was 5.56 times more likely to be contaminated by Leptospira spp. (OR 4.14, 95% CI [2.88-8.03], p = 0.01) and these relationships were significant. The majority of respondents were not aware of the disease (OR 1.87, 95% CI [1.22-4.57], p = 0.01) with 78% of the respondents not sure of which of the animal species leptospirosis affected (OR 1.67, 95% CI [1.07-2.62], p = 0.02). This study has demonstrated the existence of risk behaviors, and paucity of knowledge about leptospirosis in the study area. It is therefore recommended to organize an enlightenment program and the need for protective clothing for individuals occupationally at risk of infection by Leptospira spp.

Antox® and Bactofort® mitigated the haematological alterations induced by a very virulent infectious bursal disease virus in chicks.

The study investigated the mitigating effects of two probiotics on blood parameters of ISA Brown chicks inoculated with a very virulent infectious bursal disease virus (vvIBDV). Two hundred chicks were assigned into four groups of 50 birds each. Groups A and B were administered Antox® in water and Bactofort® in feed daily from 1 to 42 days of age and inoculated with a vvIBDV at 28 days and C and D served as positive and negative controls, respectively. Blood samples were examined for changes in packed cell volume (PCV), haemoglobin concentration (Hb), red blood cell (RBC), total white blood cell (TWBC), heterophil and lymphocyte counts seven days post inoculation. The PCV between groups A and C differed (P < 0.05) and in group B it was higher (P < 0.05) than that of group C. The Hb concentration between groups A, B and C differed (P < 0.05). There was a difference (P < 0.05) in RBC counts between groups A, B, C. Differences in TWBC between group A and C were significant (P < 0.05) and TWBC in group B was higher (P < 0.05) than that of group C. There was a significant difference in heterophil (P < 0.05) and lymphocyte (P < 0.05) count between group A and C, and B and C. Heterophil/lymphocyte ratio was significantly higher in positive control compared to groups A, B, C. Antox® and Bactofort® mitigated the deleterious effects of vvIBDV on blood parameters and can assist in cases of IBD outbreak.

Prevalence of Leptospira interrogans in wild rats (Rattus norvegicus and Cricetomys gambianus) in Zaria, Nigeria.

Leptospirosis is a neglected disease of zoonotic importance and rodents have a known role in epidemiology of Leptospira globally. Paucity of information on the prevalence of leptospirosis in wild rats used as games in Zaria, Nigeria informed the study. The study aimed to detect Leptospira interrogans in wild rats in Zaria, Nigeria. A total of 71 wild rats comprising 57 Rattus norvegicus and 14 Cricetomys gambianus were sampled over a period of 3 months (April-June 2019). Fisher exact test was used with confidence interval set at 0.05 to ascertain associations between positive cases and species. Blood was collected from 56 rats and harvested sera screened for Leptospira interrogans antibody using rat IgG competitive enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA). Following humane euthanasia of rats, 71 samples (62 kidney tissues and 9 urine samples) were collected in sterile labeled tubes and cultured using Ellinghausen Mc-cullough Johnson Harris (EMJH) enrichment and basal medium. Results indicated over all Leptospira spp antibody detection of 73.2 % (41/56) in Rattus norvegicus (60.7 %) and Cricetomys gambianus (12.5 %). No significant difference (P > 0.05) existed for the prevalence of Leptospira interrogans antibody in the species of wild rats. Over all occurrence of Leptospira interrogans were 74.2 % (46/62) in kidneys and 55.6 % (5/9) in urine samples. Based on species of rats, Rattus norvegicus recorded prevalence of 76.9 % (40/52) and 40.0 % (2/5) in kidney and urine samples respectively. Prevalence of 60.0 % (6/10) and 75.0 % (3/4) in kidney and urine samples respectively were recorded for Cricetomys gambianus. There was significant difference (P < 0.05) in the prevalence of Leptospira interrogans in kidney samples of both wild rats. These species of rats could be reservoirs of Leptospira interrogans. The result showed high prevalence of Leptospira spp in the wild rats and the possibility of domestic animals and humans contracting the disease. This study is the first documentation of evidence of pathogenic Leptospira species in wildlife used as games in Zaria, Nigeria.

Age-dependent variations in haematological and serum biochemical parameters of domestic pigeons (Columba livia domestica).

In this study, the age-dependent variations in haematological and serum biochemical parameters of domestic pigeons were evaluated. Sixty apparently healthy domestic pigeons comprising 30 young (2-7 weeks of age) and 30 adult (>7 weeks of age) were sampled from local breeders. Blood was collected from each bird via brachial venipuncture and divided into 2 parts; one part dispensed into labeled tubes containing ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid as anticoagulant was processed for haematological analyses. The other part was dispensed into labeled plain tubes, serum harvested and processed for serum biochemical analyses. Results revealed overall packed cells volume (PCV), haemoglobin concentration (HGB) and red blood cells (RBC) of 42.97 ± 4.53%, 13.15 ± 1.82 g/dL and 3.63 ± 0.50 × 1012/L respectively. All haematological parameters except mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH), mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC) and lymphocyte count showed statistical (p < 0.05) differences between young and adult pigeons. Values recorded for serum total protein, albumin, globulin, serum/albumin ratio, urea, creatinine and urea/creatinine ratio were 4.32 ± 0.74 g/dL, 2.07 ± 0.30 g/dL, 2.25 ± 0.74 g/dL, 1.04 ± 0.43, 0.48 ± 0.33 mg/dL, 0.75 ± 0.52 mg/dL and 0.73 ± 0.51 respectively. Serum urea and creatinine concentrations were significantly (p < 0.05) higher in adult (0.62 ± 0.40; 1.04 ± 0.60 mg/dL) compared to young (0.34 ± 0.13; 0.47 ± 0.15 mg/dL) pigeons. This study therefore demonstrated age-dependent variations in haematological and serum biochemical parameters of domestic pigeons.

Very virulent infectious bursal disease virus infection caused changes in cloacal temperature and clinical manifestations in pigeons (Columba livia domestica) and is transmitted to sentinel chickens.

In this study, changes in cloacal temperature and clinical manifestations due to very virulent infectious bursal disease virus (vvIBDV) infection in pigeons (Columba livia domestica) and transmission to chickens were demonstrated. Thirty pigeons (3-6 weeks old) and thirty chickens (3 weeks old) divided into 4 groups (I-IV) were used for this study. Group I comprised of 10 uninoculated pigeons only; II comprised of 10 inoculated pigeons and 10 sentinel chickens; III comprised of 10 sentinel pigeons and 10 inoculated chickens, while IV comprised of 10 uninoculated chickens only. Pigeons in group II and chickens in group III were each inoculated with 0.20 mL (titre of 109.76CID50/mL) of vvIBDV (Nigerian strain). Cloacal temperature was monitored and clinical manifestations scored post-inoculation (pi). Results indicated significant (P < 0.05) pyrexia at 2 days pi (dpi), mild clinical signs and no mortality in inoculated pigeons. Significant (P < 0.05) pyrexia at 2-4 dpi, severe clinical signs and mortality (50%; 60%) were observed in inoculated and sentinel chickens. IBDV antigen and antibody were detected in pigeons and chickens. Pigeons showed response to vvIBDV infection thus suggesting susceptibility of pigeons to IBD. Sentinel chickens presented clinical manifestations of IBD and this suggests transmission from pigeons to chickens. This study therefore documents pyrexia and clinical manifestations due to vvIBDV infection in pigeons and successful transmission of the virus between pigeons and chickens.

Pigeons (Columba livia domestica) Are Susceptible to Infectious Bursal Disease: A Comparative Study of Their Hematological and Serum Biochemical Alterations.

The hematological and serum biochemical alterations following very virulent infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) infection in pigeons and chickens were evaluated in this study. Sixty IBDV seronegative birds comprising 30 (3-6 weeks old) pigeons and 30 (3 weeks old) chickens were randomly divided as follows: 10 uninoculated pigeons only, 10 inoculated pigeons + 10 sentinel chickens, 10 inoculated chickens + 10 sentinel pigeons, and 10 uninoculated chickens. Inoculated birds were administered 0.20 ml of inoculum containing very virulent IBDV (vvIBDV). Blood was collected postinoculation/exposure (pi/pe) and processed for hematology and biochemistry. The results revealed significantly (P < 0.05) increased packed cell volume, decreased mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), and MCH concentration (MCHC) in inoculated and sentinel chickens. Total leukocyte count (TLC), heterophil, and heterophil/lymphocyte (H/L) ratio were increased from 3 dpi/dpe in inoculated pigeons and from 3 to 14 dpi/dpe in inoculated and sentinel chickens. At 10 and 14 dpi/dpe, there was significantly (P < 0.05) increased serum total protein and globulin concentrations and decreased albumin/globulin ratio in pigeons and chickens. Serum urea concentration showed significant (P < 0.05) increase in inoculated and sentinel chickens at 3 and 4 dpi/dpe. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report on hematological and serum biochemical alterations due to vvIBDV infection in pigeons.

Co-inections of domestic and wild birds with avian influenza and Newcastle disease viruses: implications for control and genetic mutations.

Co-infections of birds' upper respiratory tract by avian pathogens are common and cause increasing economic losses. This study determines co-infection status of avian influenza (AI) and Newcastle disease (ND) in birds in two Nigerian states with different highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) records and where modified stamping out policy contained the virus for seven years after which the virus resurged with higher infectivity in 2015. A cross-sectional study sampling 910 apparently healthy domestic and 90 wild birds from wild habitats, commercial poultry farms, households and live bird markets (LBMs) was conducted. Cloacal and tracheal swabs were tested for AI H5 and ND viruses using conventional reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Overall detection rates of 3% and 18% for AI and ND were obtained. There was an equivalence of 8.5% ND detection rate in poultry and wild birds in the two states. Co-infection (0.2%) of a local chicken from a live bird market (LBM) and crown crane (Balearica regulorum) from a household to AI H5 and ND viruses occurred, respectively. Exposure of birds to AI and ND was significantly detected in apparently healthy domestic and wild birds. The probability of these viruses exchanging genetic materials to resurge with increasing virulence is foreseen. Therefore, routine AI and ND control measures should incorporate virus surveillance and instituting appropriate preventive measures in domestic and wild birds held in households, commercial farms and LBMs.

Investigation of potential risk factors associated with Salmonella presence in commercial laying hen farms in Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: In 2012/13, the Federal government of Nigeria approved the surveillance of salmonellae in commercial poultry farms with the aim of generating baseline data for the development of a control programme. That baseline provided an opportunity to investigate potential risk factors in commercial layer farms. METHODS: Five hundred and twenty-three farms were evaluated for the presence of Salmonella. Each farmer was interviewed through a structured questionnaire. Univariate analysis identified 26 variables potentially associated with Salmonella presence on the farms, with different levels of significance. To simultaneously evaluate the effect of these variables, a multivariable logistic regression model was implemented. RESULTS: Farmers that are member of the Poultry Association of Nigeria (PAN) emerged as a risk factor, as well as being farmer as exclusive occupation. The risk of Salmonella increased in farms with a combined housing system as compared to farms with a single housing system. Moreover, in terms of farm management the use of plastic egg crates had a higher risk of Salmonella presence compared to paper crates. Higher risk of contamination was also identified in farms having regular contact with animal health workers, since this could be indicative of animal health problems requiring continuous assistance. Farms with no previous outbreak of salmonellosis were associated with an increase risk, since most of the farms in this category were newly established. With regard to feeding, the use of coccidiostats and commercial feeds were associated with the spread of Salmonella. Unexpectedly, the presence of other farms at distances further than 1 km away was associated with an increase in Salmonella presence as compared to farms which were in closer proximity. Close proximity among farms could favour the application of stricter biosecurity measures. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the survey can be considered a baseline for implementing effective measures aimed at reducing the Salmonella prevalence in Nigerian laying hen farms.

Salmonella serovars and their distribution in Nigerian commercial chicken layer farms.

Commercial poultry farms (n° 523), located in all the six regions of Nigeria were sampled with a view to generate baseline information about the distribution of Salmonella serovars in this country. Five different matrices (litter, dust, faeces, feed and water) were collected from each visited farm. Salmonella was isolated from at least one of the five matrices in 228 farms, with a farm prevalence of 43.6% (CI95[39.7-48.3%]). Altogether, 370 of 2615 samples collected (14.1%, CI95[12.8; 15.5%]) contained Salmonella. Considering the number of positive farms and the number of positive samples, it was evident that for the majority of the sampled farms, few samples were positive for Salmonella. With regard to the matrices, there was no difference in Salmonella prevalence among the five matrices considered. Of the 370 isolates serotyped, eighty-two different serotypes were identified and Salmonella Kentucky was identified as having the highest isolation rate in all the matrices sampled (16.2%), followed by S. Poona and S. Elisabethville. S. Kentucky was distributed across the country, whereas the other less frequent serovars had a more circumscribed diffusion. This is one of few comprehensive studies on the occurrence and distribution of Salmonella in commercial chicken layer farms from all the six regions of Nigeria. The relatively high prevalence rate documented in this study may be attributed to the generally poor infrastructure and low biosecurity measures in controlling stray animals, rodents and humans. Data collected could be valuable for instituting effective intervention strategies for Salmonella control in Nigeria and also in other developing countries with a similar poultry industry structure, with the final aim of reducing Salmonella spread in animals and ultimately in humans.

Survey for highly pathogenic avian influenza from poultry in two northeastern States, Nigeria.

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is a major global zoonosis. It has a complex ecological distribution with almost unpredictable epidemiological features thus placing it topmost in the World Organization for Animal Health list A poultry diseases. Structured questionnaire survey of poultry farmer's knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) in two Nigerian states revealed the presence of risk farming practices that may enable avian influenza high chance of introduction/reintroduction. There existed significant statistical association between farmer's educational levels and AI awareness and zoonotic awareness (P < 0.005). Poultry rearing of multiage and species (81%), multiple sources of stock (62%), inadequate dead-bird disposal (71%), and access to live bird markets (LBMs) (62%) constituted major biosecurity threats in these poultry farming communities. Haemagglutination inhibition (HI) test detected antibodies against H5 avian influenza (AI) in 8 of the 400 sera samples; rapid antigen detection test kit (RADTK) was negative for all the 400 cloaca and trachea swabs. These results and other poultry diseases similar to AI observed in this study could invariably affect avian influenza early detection, reporting, and control. We recommend strong policy initiatives towards poultry farmers' attitudinal change and increasing efforts on awareness of the implications of future HPAI outbreaks in Nigeria.