L-fucose, a sugary regulator of antitumor immunity and immunotherapies.

l-fucose is a dietary sugar that is used by cells in a process called fucosylation to posttranslationally modify and regulate protein behavior and function. As fucosylation plays essential cellular functions in normal organ and immune developmental and homeostasis, it is perhaps not surprising that it has been found to be perturbed in a number of pathophysiological contexts, including cancer. Increasing studies over the years have highlighted key roles that altered fucosylation can play in cancer cell-intrinsic as well as paracrine signaling and interactions. In particular, studies have demonstrated that fucosylation impact tumor:immunological interactions and significantly enhance or attenuate antitumor immunity. Importantly, fucosylation appears to be a posttranslational modification that can be therapeutically targeted, as manipulating the molecular underpinnings of fucosylation has been shown to be sufficient to impair or block tumor progression and to modulate antitumor immunity. Moreover, the fucosylation of anticancer agents, such as therapeutic antibodies, has been shown to critically impact their efficacy. In this review, we summarize the underappreciated roles that fucosylation plays in cancer and immune cells, as well as the fucosylation of therapeutic antibodies or the manipulation of fucosylation and their implications as new therapeutic modalities for cancer.

The Mobile bypass Signal Arrests Shoot Growth by Disrupting Shoot Apical Meristem Maintenance, Cytokinin Signaling, and WUS Transcription Factor Expression.

The bypass1 (bps1) mutant of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) produces a root-sourced compound (the bps signal) that moves to the shoot and is sufficient to arrest growth of a wild-type shoot; however, the mechanism of growth arrest is not understood. Here, we show that the earliest shoot defect arises during germination and is a failure of bps1 mutants to maintain their shoot apical meristem (SAM). This finding suggested that the bps signal might affect expression or function of SAM regulatory genes, and we found WUSCHEL (WUS) expression to be repressed in bps1 mutants. Repression appears to arise from the mobile bps signal, as the bps1 root was sufficient to rapidly down-regulate WUS expression in wild-type shoots. Normally, WUS is regulated by a balance between positive regulation by cytokinin (CK) and negative regulation by CLAVATA (CLV). In bps1, repression of WUS was independent of CLV, and, instead, the bps signal down-regulates CK responses. Cytokinin treatment of bps1 mutants restored both WUS expression and activity, but only in the rib meristem. How the bps signal down-regulates CK remains unknown, though the bps signal was sufficient to repress expression of one CK receptor (AHK4) and one response regulator (AHP6). Together, these data suggest that the bps signal pathway has the potential for long-distance regulation through modification of CK signaling and altering gene expression.

In the absence of BYPASS1-related gene function, the bps signal disrupts embryogenesis by an auxin-independent mechanism.

Development is often coordinated by biologically active mobile compounds that move between cells or organs. Arabidopsis mutants with defects in the BYPASS1 (BPS1) gene overproduce an active mobile compound that moves from the root to the shoot and inhibits growth. Here, we describe two related Arabidopsis genes, BPS2 and BPS3. Analyses of single, double and triple mutants revealed that all three genes regulate production of the same mobile compound, the bps signal, with BPS1 having the largest role. The triple mutant had a severe embryo defect, including the failure to properly establish provascular tissue, the shoot meristem and the root meristem. Aberrant expression of PINFORMED1, DR5, PLETHORA1, PLETHORA2 and WUSCHEL-LIKE HOMEOBOX5 were found in heart-stage bps triple-mutant embryos. However, auxin-induced gene expression, and localization of the PIN1 auxin efflux transporter, were intact in bps1 mutants, suggesting that the primary target of the bps signal is independent of auxin response. Thus, the bps signal identifies a novel signaling pathway that regulates patterning and growth in parallel with auxin signaling, in multiple tissues and at multiple developmental stages.

Androgen drives melanoma invasiveness and metastatic spread by inducing tumorigenic fucosylation.

Melanoma incidence and mortality rates are historically higher for men than women. Although emerging studies have highlighted tumorigenic roles for the male sex hormone androgen and its receptor (AR) in melanoma, cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying these sex-associated discrepancies are poorly defined. Here, we delineate a previously undisclosed mechanism by which androgen-activated AR transcriptionally upregulates fucosyltransferase 4 (FUT4) expression, which drives melanoma invasiveness by interfering with adherens junctions (AJs). Global phosphoproteomic and fucoproteomic profiling, coupled with in vitro and in vivo functional validation, further reveal that AR-induced FUT4 fucosylates L1 cell adhesion molecule (L1CAM), which is required for FUT4-increased metastatic capacity. Tumor microarray and gene expression analyses demonstrate that AR-FUT4-L1CAM-AJs signaling correlates with pathological staging in melanoma patients. By delineating key androgen-triggered signaling that enhances metastatic aggressiveness, our findings help explain sex-associated clinical outcome disparities and highlight AR/FUT4 and its effectors as potential prognostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets in melanoma.

NADK-mediated de novo NADP(H) synthesis is a metabolic adaptation essential for breast cancer metastasis.

Metabolic reprogramming and metabolic plasticity allow cancer cells to fine-tune their metabolism and adapt to the ever-changing environments of the metastatic cascade, for which lipid metabolism and oxidative stress are of particular importance. NADPH is a central co-factor for both lipid and redox homeostasis, suggesting that cancer cells may require larger pools of NADPH to efficiently metastasize. NADPH is recycled through reduction of NADP+ by several enzymatic systems in cells; however, de novo NADP+ is synthesized only through one known enzymatic reaction, catalyzed by NAD+ kinase (NADK). Here, we show that NADK is upregulated in metastatic breast cancer cells enabling de novo production of NADP(H) and the expansion of the NADP(H) pools thereby increasing the ability of these cells to adapt to the challenges of the metastatic cascade and efficiently metastasize. Mechanistically, we found that metastatic signals lead to a histone H3.3 variant-mediated epigenetic regulation of the NADK promoter, resulting in increased NADK levels in cells with metastatic ability. Together, our work presents a previously uncharacterized role for NADK and de novo NADP(H) production as a contributor to breast cancer progression and suggests that NADK constitutes an important and much needed therapeutic target for metastatic breast cancers.

Brain metastasis-associated fibroblasts secrete fucosylated PVR/CD155 that induces breast cancer invasion.

Brain metastasis cancer-associated fibroblasts (bmCAFs) are emerging as crucial players in the development of breast cancer brain metastasis (BCBM), but our understanding of the underlying molecular mechanisms is limited. In this study, we aim to elucidate the pathological contributions of fucosylation (the post-translational modification of proteins by the dietary sugar L-fucose) to tumor-stromal interactions that drive the development of BCBM. Here, we report that patient-derived bmCAFs secrete high levels of polio virus receptor (PVR), which enhance the invasive capacity of BC cells. Mechanistically, we find that HIF1α transcriptionally upregulates fucosyltransferase 11, which fucosylates PVR, triggering its secretion from bmCAFs. Global phosphoproteomic analysis of BC cells followed by functional verification identifies cell-cell junction and actin cytoskeletal signaling as modulated by bmCAF-secreted, -fucosylated PVR. Our findings delineate a hypoxia- and fucosylation-regulated mechanism by which bmCAFs contribute to the invasiveness of BCBM in the brain.

Fucosylation of HLA-DRB1 regulates CD4+ T cell-mediated anti-melanoma immunity and enhances immunotherapy efficacy.

Immunotherapy efficacy is limited in melanoma, and combinations of immunotherapies with other modalities have yielded limited improvements but also adverse events requiring cessation of treatment. In addition to ineffective patient stratification, efficacy is impaired by paucity of intratumoral immune cells (itICs); thus, effective strategies to safely increase itICs are needed. We report that dietary administration of L-fucose induces fucosylation and cell surface enrichment of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-II protein HLA-DRB1 in melanoma cells, triggering CD4+ T cell-mediated increases in itICs and anti-tumor immunity, enhancing immune checkpoint blockade responses. Melanoma fucosylation and fucosylated HLA-DRB1 associate with intratumoral T cell abundance and anti-programmed cell death protein 1 (PD1) responder status in patient melanoma specimens, suggesting the potential use of melanoma fucosylation as a strategy for stratifying patients for immunotherapies. Our findings demonstrate that fucosylation is a key mediator of anti-tumor immunity and, importantly, suggest that L-fucose is a powerful agent for safely increasing itICs and immunotherapy efficacy in melanoma.

Deubiquitinase Vulnerabilities Identified through Activity-Based Protein Profiling in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer.

To aid in the prioritization of deubiquitinases (DUBs) as anticancer targets, we developed an approach combining activity-based protein profiling (ABPP) with mass spectrometry in both non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) tumor tissues and cell lines along with analysis of available RNA interference and CRISPR screens. We identified 67 DUBs in NSCLC tissues, 17 of which were overexpressed in adenocarcinoma or squamous cell histologies and 12 of which scored as affecting lung cancer cell viability in RNAi or CRISPR screens. We used the CSN5 inhibitor, which targets COPS5/CSN5, as a tool to understand the biological significance of one of these 12 DUBs, COPS6, in lung cancer. Our study provides a powerful resource to interrogate the role of DUB signaling biology and nominates druggable targets for the treatment of lung cancer subtypes.

Integrated Proteomics-Based Physical and Functional Mapping of AXL Kinase Signaling Pathways and Inhibitors Define Its Role in Cell Migration.

To better understand the signaling complexity of AXL, a member of the tumor-associated macrophage (TAM) receptor tyrosine kinase family, we created a physical and functional map of AXL signaling interactions, phosphorylation events, and target-engagement of three AXL tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI). We assessed AXL protein complexes using proximity-dependent biotinylation (BioID), effects of AXL TKI on global phosphoproteins using mass spectrometry, and target engagement of AXL TKI using activity-based protein profiling. BioID identifies AXL-interacting proteins that are mostly involved in cell adhesion/migration. Global phosphoproteomics show that AXL inhibition decreases phosphorylation of peptides involved in phosphatidylinositol-mediated signaling and cell adhesion/migration. Comparison of three AXL inhibitors reveals that TKI RXDX-106 inhibits pAXL, pAKT, and migration/invasion of these cells without reducing their viability, while bemcentinib exerts AXL-independent phenotypic effects on viability. Proteomic characterization of these TKIs demonstrates that they inhibit diverse targets in addition to AXL, with bemcentinib having the most off-targets. AXL and EGFR TKI cotreatment did not reverse resistance in cell line models of erlotinib resistance. However, a unique vulnerability was identified in one resistant clone, wherein combination of bemcentinib and erlotinib inhibited cell viability and signaling. We also show that AXL is overexpressed in approximately 30% to 40% of nonsmall but rarely in small cell lung cancer. Cell lines have a wide range of AXL expression, with basal activation detected rarely. IMPLICATIONS: Our study defines mechanisms of action of AXL in lung cancers which can be used to establish assays to measure drug targetable active AXL complexes in patient tissues and inform the strategy for targeting it's signaling as an anticancer therapy.

Long-distance signaling in bypass1 mutants: bioassay development reveals the bps signal to be a metabolite.

Root-to-shoot signaling is used by plants to coordinate shoot development with the conditions experienced by the roots. A mobile and biologically active compound, the bps signal, is over-produced in roots of an Arabidopsis thaliana mutant called bypass1 (bps1), and might also be a normally produced signaling molecule in wild-type plants. Our goal is to identify the bps signal chemically, which will then allow us to assess its production in normal plants. To identify any signaling molecule, a bioassay is required, and here we describe the development of a robust, simple, and quantitative bioassay for the bps signal. The developed bioassay follows the growth-reducing activity of the bps signal using the pCYCB1;1::GUS cell cycle marker. Wild-type plants carrying this marker, and provided the bps signal through either grafts or metabolite extracts, showed reduced cell division. By contrast, control grafts and treatment with control extracts showed no change in pCYCB1;1::GUS expression. To determine the chemical nature of the bps signal, extracts were treated with RNase A, Proteinase K, or heat. None of these treatments diminished the activity of bps1 extracts, suggesting that the active molecule might be a metabolite. This bioassay will be useful for future biochemical fractionation and analysis directed toward bps signal identification.