The joint development of externalizing and internalizing behaviors in black and Hispanic youth and the link to late adolescent substance use.

There is a need to understand how the joint development of externalizing and internalizing behaviors is related to substance use, particularly among historically understudied and often disadvantaged populations. Latent class models were used to estimate patterns of externalizing behaviors and internalizing behaviors in the form of depressive and anxious symptoms from age 6 to 14 among 390 Black and Hispanic youth. Then, growth curve models of substance use between the ages of 15 and 19 were estimated as a function of joint latent class membership. Only elevated levels of externalizing behaviors were associated with higher levels of substance use through age 18. Internalizing behaviors appeared to serve as a protective factor among those with moderate displays of externalizing behavior only. Additionally, growth in substance use from ages 15 to 19 was slower among those who displayed the highest level of externalizing behaviors, and internalizing behaviors appeared to moderate growth (and serve as protective factor) among those who displayed moderate levels of externalizing behaviors. The findings underscore the importance of pattern profiles based on observations of the joint development of problem behaviors to assess risk for substance use, particularly in understudied populations where risk/protective factors may operate in a unique manner.

Two-Part Models for Father-Child Relationship Variables: Presence in the Child's Life and Quality of the Relationship Conditional on Some Presence.

Parent-child relationship variables are often measured using a two-part approach. For example, when assessing the warmth of the father-child relationship, a child is first asked if they have contact with their father; if so, the level of warmth they feel toward him is ascertained. In this setting, data on the warmth measure is missing for children without contact with their father, and such missing data can pose a significant methodological and substantive challenge when the variable is used as an outcome or antecedent variable in a model. In both cases, it is advantageous to use an analytic method that simultaneously models whether the child has contact with the father, and if they do, the degree to which the father-child relationship is characterized by warmth. This is particularly relevant when the two-part variable is measured over time, as contact status may change. We offer a pragmatic tutorial for using two-part variables in regression models, including a brief overview of growth modeling, an explanation of the techniques to handle two-part variables as predictors and outcomes in the context of growth modeling, examples with real data, and syntax in both R and Mplus for fitting all discussed models.

Does Parents' Age at First Birth Moderate Intergenerational Continuity in Early-Onset Cannabis Use?

OBJECTIVE: The aims of this brief report were to examine the extent to which early onset of cannabis use by parents and their children, and intergenerational continuity in early-onset cannabis use by parents and children, differ as a function of parent age at birth of first child. METHOD: A total of 795 parent-child dyads (57% male parents and 49% male children) were compiled from three intergenerational studies: Oregon Youth Study-Three Generational Study (OYS-3GS), Rochester Youth Development Study and Rochester Intergenerational Study (RYDS-RIGS), and Seattle Social Development Project-The Intergenerational Project (SSDP-TIP). Parents and children identified as non-Hispanic White (29% and 22%, respectively), Black (55% and 47%), and Hispanic (8% and 11%). Early-onset cannabis use was defined as initiation at or before age 15. Time-varying effect models were fit to examine the research questions. RESULTS: Among parents, earlier initiation of cannabis use was associated with an earlier entry into parenthood. Moreover, parents' later age at first birth was predictive of a lower prevalence of early-onset cannabis use among their children. Last, regarding intergenerational continuity, parental early onset of cannabis use increased the likelihood of child early-onset use, but only among older parents (i.e., later age at first birth). CONCLUSIONS: We provide a nuanced examination of the associations between parental and child early-onset cannabis use as a function of parents' age at first birth and describe a novel approach to incorporating parent's age at first birth into models of intergenerational continuity.

Intergenerational Continuity in Substance Abuse: Does Offspring's Friendship Network Make a Difference?

PURPOSE: A parental history of substance abuse is a key risk factor for offspring's substance abuse. Identification of factors that may mitigate this effect is prerequisite to promoting resilience. In this study, we consider the substance use of peers in an adolescent's friendship network as a potential moderator of intergenerational continuity in substance abuse. METHODS: Prospective, longitudinal data from the Rochester Youth Development Study and the Rochester Intergenerational Study for 246 father-child dyads and 167 mother-child dyads were utilized. Ordinal generalized estimating equations were specified to examine the moderating role of friend's substance use in the relationship between parental substance use disorder and child's substance abuse between the ages of 13 and 17. RESULTS: Father's substance use disorder was associated with an increased risk of substance abuse by his child. Moreover, the harmful effect of paternal substance abuse on child's abuse of substances was apparent only when some or most of the child's friends used substances. Maternal substance use disorder was extremely rare in the sample and was not found to be associated with child's substance abuse, irrespective of the substance use of friends. CONCLUSIONS: The intergenerational transmission of risk for substance abuse between father and child was mitigated when children were not exposed to friends who use substances, and exacerbated when children had substantial exposure to substance-using friends. Preventing the child's association with substance-using peers may be particularly important for children with this type of familial risk.