Effector differentiation downstream of lineage commitment in ILC1s is driven by Hobit across tissues.

Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) participate in tissue homeostasis, inflammation, and early immunity against infection. It is unclear how ILCs acquire effector function and whether these mechanisms differ between organs. Through multiplexed single-cell mRNA sequencing, we identified cKit+CD127hiTCF-1hi early differentiation stages of T-bet+ ILC1s. These cells were present across different organs and had the potential to mature toward CD127intTCF-1int and CD127-TCF-1- ILC1s. Paralleling a gradual loss of TCF-1, differentiating ILC1s forfeited their expansion potential while increasing expression of effector molecules, reminiscent of T cell differentiation in secondary lymphoid organs. The transcription factor Hobit was induced in TCF-1hi ILC1s and was required for their effector differentiation. These findings reveal sequential mechanisms of ILC1 lineage commitment and effector differentiation that are conserved across tissues. Our analyses suggest that ILC1s emerge as TCF-1hi cells in the periphery and acquire a spectrum of organ-specific effector phenotypes through a uniform Hobit-dependent differentiation pathway driven by local cues.

Type 1 conventional dendritic cells maintain and guide the differentiation of precursors of exhausted T cells in distinct cellular niches.

Reinvigoration of exhausted CD8+ T (Tex) cells by checkpoint immunotherapy depends on the activation of precursors of exhausted T (Tpex) cells, but the local anatomical context of their maintenance, differentiation, and interplay with other cells is not well understood. Here, we identified transcriptionally distinct Tpex subpopulations, mapped their differentiation trajectories via transitory cellular states toward Tex cells, and localized these cell states to specific splenic niches. Conventional dendritic cells (cDCs) were critical for successful αPD-L1 therapy and were required to mediate viral control. cDC1s were dispensable for Tpex cell expansion but provided an essential niche to promote Tpex cell maintenance, preventing their overactivation and T-cell-mediated immunopathology. Mechanistically, cDC1s insulated Tpex cells via MHC-I-dependent interactions to prevent their activation within other inflammatory environments that further aggravated their exhaustion. Our findings reveal that cDC1s maintain and safeguard Tpex cells within distinct anatomical niches to balance viral control, exhaustion, and immunopathology.

Myocardial Milieu Favors Local Differentiation of Regulatory T Cells.

BACKGROUND: In the past years, several studies investigated how distinct immune cell subsets affects post-myocardial infarction repair. However, whether and how the tissue environment controls these local immune responses has remained poorly understood. We sought to investigate how antigen-specific T-helper cells differentiate under myocardial milieu's influence. METHODS: We used a transgenic T cell receptor (TCR-M) model and major histocompatibility complex-II tetramers, both myosin-specific, combined with single-cell transcriptomics (single-cell RNA sequencing [scRNA-seq]) and functional phenotyping to elucidate how the antigen-specific CD4+ T cells differentiate in the murine infarcted myocardium and influence tissue repair. Additionally, we transferred proinflammatory versus regulatory predifferentiated TCR-M-cells to dissect how they specially contribute to post-myocardial infarction inflammation. RESULTS: Flow cytometry and scRNA-/TCR-seq analyses revealed that transferred TCR-M cells acquired an induced regulatory phenotype (induced regulatory T cell) in the infarcted myocardium and blunted local inflammation. Myocardial TCR-M cells differentiated into 2 main lineages enriched with either cell activation and profibrotic transcripts (eg, Tgfb1) or suppressor immune checkpoints (eg, Pdcd1), which we also found in human myocardial tissue. These cells produced high levels of LAP (latency-associated peptide) and inhibited IL-17 (interleukin-17) responses. Endogenous myosin-specific T-helper cells, identified using genetically barcoded tetramers, also accumulated in infarcted hearts and exhibited a regulatory phenotype. Notably, TCR-M cells that were predifferentiated toward a regulatory phenotype in vitro maintained stable in vivo FOXP3 (Forkhead box P3) expression and anti-inflammatory activity whereas TH17 partially converted toward a regulatory phenotype in the injured myocardium. Overall, the myosin-specific Tregs dampened post-myocardial infarction inflammation, suppressed neighboring T cells, and were associated with improved cardiac function. CONCLUSIONS: These findings provide novel evidence that the heart and its draining lymph nodes actively shape local immune responses by promoting the differentiation of antigen-specific Tregs poised with suppressive function.

scSLAM-seq reveals core features of transcription dynamics in single cells.

Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) has highlighted the important role of intercellular heterogeneity in phenotype variability in both health and disease1. However, current scRNA-seq approaches provide only a snapshot of gene expression and convey little information on the true temporal dynamics and stochastic nature of transcription. A further key limitation of scRNA-seq analysis is that the RNA profile of each individual cell can be analysed only once. Here we introduce single-cell, thiol-(SH)-linked alkylation of RNA for metabolic labelling sequencing (scSLAM-seq), which integrates metabolic RNA labelling2, biochemical nucleoside conversion3 and scRNA-seq to record transcriptional activity directly by differentiating between new and old RNA for thousands of genes per single cell. We use scSLAM-seq to study the onset of infection with lytic cytomegalovirus in single mouse fibroblasts. The cell-cycle state and dose of infection deduced from old RNA enable dose-response analysis based on new RNA. scSLAM-seq thereby both visualizes and explains differences in transcriptional activity at the single-cell level. Furthermore, it depicts 'on-off' switches and transcriptional burst kinetics in host gene expression with extensive gene-specific differences that correlate with promoter-intrinsic features (TBP-TATA-box interactions and DNA methylation). Thus, gene-specific, and not cell-specific, features explain the heterogeneity in transcriptomes between individual cells and the transcriptional response to perturbations.

Gene-environment interaction elicits dystonia-like features and impaired translational regulation in a DYT-TOR1A mouse model.

DYT-TOR1A dystonia is the most common monogenic dystonia characterized by involuntary muscle contractions and lack of therapeutic options. Despite some insights into its etiology, the disease's pathophysiology remains unclear. The reduced penetrance of about 30% suggests that extragenetic factors are needed to develop a dystonic phenotype. In order to systematically investigate this hypothesis, we induced a sciatic nerve crush injury in a genetically predisposed DYT-TOR1A mouse model (DYT1KI) to evoke a dystonic phenotype. Subsequently, we employed a multi-omic approach to uncover novel pathophysiological pathways that might be responsible for this condition. Using an unbiased deep-learning-based characterization of the dystonic phenotype showed that nerve-injured DYT1KI animals exhibited significantly more dystonia-like movements (DLM) compared to naive DYT1KI animals. This finding was noticeable as early as two weeks following the surgical procedure. Furthermore, nerve-injured DYT1KI mice displayed significantly more DLM than nerve-injured wildtype (wt) animals starting at 6 weeks post injury. In the cerebellum of nerve-injured wt mice, multi-omic analysis pointed towards regulation in translation related processes. These observations were not made in the cerebellum of nerve-injured DYT1KI mice; instead, they were localized to the cortex and striatum. Our findings indicate a failed translational compensatory mechanisms in the cerebellum of phenotypic DYT1KI mice that exhibit DLM, while translation dysregulations in the cortex and striatum likely promotes the dystonic phenotype.

Genome organization and DNA accessibility control antigenic variation in trypanosomes.

Many evolutionarily distant pathogenic organisms have evolved similar survival strategies to evade the immune responses of their hosts. These include antigenic variation, through which an infecting organism prevents clearance by periodically altering the identity of proteins that are visible to the immune system of the host1. Antigenic variation requires large reservoirs of immunologically diverse antigen genes, which are often generated through homologous recombination, as well as mechanisms to ensure the expression of one or very few antigens at any given time. Both homologous recombination and gene expression are affected by three-dimensional genome architecture and local DNA accessibility2,3. Factors that link three-dimensional genome architecture, local chromatin conformation and antigenic variation have, to our knowledge, not yet been identified in any organism. One of the major obstacles to studying the role of genome architecture in antigenic variation has been the highly repetitive nature and heterozygosity of antigen-gene arrays, which has precluded complete genome assembly in many pathogens. Here we report the de novo haplotype-specific assembly and scaffolding of the long antigen-gene arrays of the model protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei, using long-read sequencing technology and conserved features of chromosome folding4. Genome-wide chromosome conformation capture (Hi-C) reveals a distinct partitioning of the genome, with antigen-encoding subtelomeric regions that are folded into distinct, highly compact compartments. In addition, we performed a range of analyses-Hi-C, fluorescence in situ hybridization, assays for transposase-accessible chromatin using sequencing and single-cell RNA sequencing-that showed that deletion of the histone variants H3.V and H4.V increases antigen-gene clustering, DNA accessibility across sites of antigen expression and switching of the expressed antigen isoform, via homologous recombination. Our analyses identify histone variants as a molecular link between global genome architecture, local chromatin conformation and antigenic variation.

Dynamics of Cardiac Neutrophil Diversity in Murine Myocardial Infarction.

RATIONALE: After myocardial infarction, neutrophils rapidly and massively infiltrate the heart, where they promote both tissue healing and damage. OBJECTIVE: To characterize the dynamics of circulating and cardiac neutrophil diversity after infarction. METHODS AND RESULTS: We employed single-cell transcriptomics combined with cell surface epitope detection by sequencing to investigate temporal neutrophil diversity in the blood and heart after murine myocardial infarction. At day 1, 3, and 5 after infarction, cardiac Ly6G+ (lymphocyte antigen 6G) neutrophils could be delineated into 6 distinct clusters with specific time-dependent patterning and proportions. At day 1, neutrophils were characterized by a gene expression profile proximal to bone marrow neutrophils (Cd177, Lcn2, Fpr1), and putative activity of transcriptional regulators involved in hypoxic response (Hif1a) and emergency granulopoiesis (Cebpb). At 3 and 5 days, 2 major subsets of Siglecfhi (enriched for eg, Icam1 and Tnf) and Siglecflow (Slpi, Ifitm1) neutrophils were found. Cellular indexing of transcriptomes and epitopes by sequencing (CITE-seq) analysis in blood and heart revealed that while circulating neutrophils undergo a process of aging characterized by loss of surface CD62L and upregulation of Cxcr4, heart infiltrating neutrophils acquired a unique SiglecFhi signature. SiglecFhi neutrophils were absent from the bone marrow and spleen, indicating local acquisition of the SiglecFhi signature. Reducing the influx of blood neutrophils by anti-Ly6G treatment increased proportions of cardiac SiglecFhi neutrophils, suggesting accumulation of locally aged neutrophils. Computational analysis of ligand/receptor interactions revealed putative pathways mediating neutrophil to macrophage communication in the myocardium. Finally, SiglecFhi neutrophils were also found in atherosclerotic vessels, revealing that they arise across distinct contexts of cardiovascular inflammation. CONCLUSIONS: Altogether, our data provide a time-resolved census of neutrophil diversity and gene expression dynamics in the mouse blood and ischemic heart at the single-cell level, and reveal a process of local tissue specification of neutrophils in the ischemic heart characterized by the acquisition of a SiglecFhi signature.

Time-Resolved scRNA-Seq Tracks the Adaptation of a Sensitive MCL Cell Line to Ibrutinib Treatment.

Since the approval of ibrutinib for relapsed/refractory mantle cell lymphoma (MCL), the treatment of this rare mature B-cell neoplasm has taken a great leap forward. Despite promising efficacy of the Bruton tyrosine kinase inhibitor, resistance arises inevitably and the underlying mechanisms remain to be elucidated. Here, we aimed to decipher the response of a sensitive MCL cell line treated with ibrutinib using time-resolved single-cell RNA sequencing. The analysis uncovered five subpopulations and their individual responses to the treatment. The effects on the B cell receptor pathway, cell cycle, surface antigen expression, and metabolism were revealed by the computational analysis and were validated by molecular biological methods. The observed upregulation of B cell receptor signaling, crosstalk with the microenvironment, upregulation of CD52, and metabolic reprogramming towards dependence on oxidative phosphorylation favor resistance to ibrutinib treatment. Targeting these cellular responses provide new therapy options in MCL.

Single-Cell RNA-Seq Reveals the Transcriptional Landscape and Heterogeneity of Aortic Macrophages in Murine Atherosclerosis.

RATIONALE: It is assumed that atherosclerotic arteries contain several macrophage subsets endowed with specific functions. The precise identity of these subsets is poorly characterized as they have been defined by the expression of a restricted number of markers. OBJECTIVE: We have applied single-cell RNA sequencing as an unbiased profiling strategy to interrogate and classify aortic macrophage heterogeneity at the single-cell level in atherosclerosis. METHOD AND RESULTS: We performed single-cell RNA sequencing of total aortic CD45+ cells extracted from the nondiseased (chow fed) and atherosclerotic (11 weeks of high-fat diet) aorta of low-density lipoprotein receptor-deficient (Ldlr-/-) mice. Unsupervised clustering singled out 13 distinct aortic cell clusters. Among the myeloid cell populations, resident-like macrophages with a gene expression profile similar to aortic resident macrophages were found in healthy and diseased aortas, whereas monocytes, monocyte-derived dendritic cells, and 2 populations of macrophages were almost exclusively detectable in atherosclerotic aortas, comprising inflammatory macrophages showing enrichment in Il1b and previously undescribed TREM2hi (triggered receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2) macrophages showing enrichment in Trem2. Differential gene expression and gene ontology enrichment analyses revealed specific gene expression patterns distinguishing these 3 macrophage subsets and monocyte-derived dendritic cells and uncovered putative functions of each cell type. Notably, TREM2hi macrophages seemed to be endowed with specialized functions in lipid metabolism and catabolism and presented a gene expression signature reminiscent of osteoclasts, suggesting a role in lesion calcification. TREM2 expression was moreover detected in human lesional macrophages. Importantly, these macrophage populations were present also in advanced atherosclerosis and in Apoe-/- aortas, indicating relevance of our findings in different stages of atherosclerosis and mouse models. CONCLUSIONS: These data unprecedentedly uncovered the transcriptional landscape and phenotypic heterogeneity of aortic macrophages and monocyte-derived dendritic cells in atherosclerotic and identified previously unrecognized macrophage populations and their gene expression signature, suggesting specialized functions. Our findings will open up novel opportunities to explore distinct myeloid cell populations and their functions in atherosclerosis.

Gene-specific factors determine mitotic expression and bookmarking via alternate regulatory elements.

Transcriptional silencing during mitosis is caused by inactivation of critical transcriptional regulators and/or chromatin condensation. Inheritance of gene expression patterns through cell division involves various bookmarking mechanisms. In this report, we have examined the mitotic and post-mitotic expression of the DRA major histocompatibility class II (MHCII) gene in different cell types. During mitosis the constitutively MHCII-expressing B lymphoblastoid cells showed sustained occupancy of the proximal promoter by the cognate enhanceosome and general transcription factors. In contrast, although mitotic epithelial cells were depleted of these proteins irrespectively of their MHCII transcriptional activity, a distal enhancer selectively recruited the PP2A phosphatase via NFY and maintained chromatin accessibility. Based on our data, we propose a novel chromatin anti-condensation role for this element in mitotic bookmarking and timing of post-mitotic transcriptional reactivation.

Cellular landscape of adrenocortical carcinoma at single-nuclei resolution.

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare yet devastating tumour of the adrenal gland with a molecular pathology that remains incompletely understood. To gain novel insights into the cellular landscape of ACC, we generated single-nuclei RNA sequencing (snRNA-seq) data sets from twelve ACC tumour samples and analysed these alongside snRNA-seq data sets from normal adrenal glands (NAGs). We find the ACC tumour microenvironment to be relatively devoid of immune cells compared to NAG tissues, consistent with known high tumour purity values for ACC as an immunologically "cold" tumour. Our analysis identifies three separate groups of ACC samples that are characterised by different relative compositions of adrenocortical cell types. These include cell populations that are specifically enriched in the most clinically aggressive and hormonally active tumours, displaying hallmarks of reorganised cell mechanobiology and dysregulated steroidogenesis, respectively. We also identified and validated a population of mitotically active adrenocortical cells that strongly overexpress genes POLQ, DIAPH3 and EZH2 to support tumour expansion alongside an LGR4+ progenitor-like or cell-of-origin candidate for adrenocortical carcinogenesis. Trajectory inference suggests the fate adopted by malignant adrenocortical cells upon differentiation is associated with the copy number or allelic balance state of the imprinted DLK1/MEG3 genomic locus, which we verified by assessing bulk tumour DNA methylation status. In conclusion, our results therefore provide new insights into the clinical and cellular heterogeneity of ACC, revealing how genetic perturbations to healthy adrenocortical renewal and zonation provide a molecular basis for disease pathogenesis.

Cytotoxic CNS-associated T cells drive axon degeneration by targeting perturbed oligodendrocytes in PLP1 mutant mice.

Myelin defects lead to neurological dysfunction in various diseases and in normal aging. Chronic neuroinflammation often contributes to axon-myelin damage in these conditions and can be initiated and/or sustained by perturbed myelinating glia. We have previously shown that distinct PLP1 mutations result in neurodegeneration that is largely driven by adaptive immune cells. Here we characterize CD8+ CNS-associated T cells in myelin mutants using single-cell transcriptomics and identify population heterogeneity and disease-associated changes. We demonstrate that early sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor modulation attenuates T cell recruitment and neural damage, while later targeting of CNS-associated T cell populations is inefficient. Applying bone marrow chimerism and utilizing random X chromosome inactivation, we provide evidence that axonal damage is driven by cytotoxic, antigen specific CD8+ T cells that target mutant myelinating oligodendrocytes. These findings offer insights into neural-immune interactions and are of translational relevance for neurological conditions associated with myelin defects and neuroinflammation.

An interferon gamma response signature links myocardial aging and immunosenescence.

AIMS: Aging entails profound immunological transformations that can impact myocardial homeostasis and predispose to heart failure. However, preclinical research in the immune-cardiology field is mostly conducted in young healthy animals, which potentially weakens its translational relevance. Herein, we sought to investigate how the aging T-cell compartment associates with changes in myocardial cell biology in aged mice. METHODS AND RESULTS: We phenotyped the antigen-experienced effector/memory T cells purified from heart-draining lymph nodes of 2-, 6-, 12-, and 18-month-old C57BL/6J mice using single-cell RNA/T cell receptor sequencing. Simultaneously, we profiled all non-cardiomyocyte cell subsets purified from 2- to 18-month-old hearts and integrated our data with publicly available cardiomyocyte single-cell sequencing datasets. Some of these findings were confirmed at the protein level by flow cytometry. With aging, the heart-draining lymph node and myocardial T cells underwent clonal expansion and exhibited an up-regulated pro-inflammatory transcription signature, marked by an increased interferon-γ (IFN-γ) production. In parallel, all major myocardial cell populations showed increased IFN-γ responsive signature with aging. In the aged cardiomyocytes, a stronger IFN-γ response signature was paralleled by the dampening of expression levels of transcripts related to most metabolic pathways, especially oxidative phosphorylation. Likewise, induced pluripotent stem cells-derived cardiomyocytes exposed to chronic, low grade IFN-γ treatment showed a similar inhibition of metabolic activity. CONCLUSIONS: By investigating the paired age-related alterations in the T cells found in the heart and its draining lymph nodes, we provide evidence for increased myocardial IFN-γ signaling with age, which is associated with inflammatory and metabolic shifts typically seen in heart failure.

Dynamics of monocyte-derived macrophage diversity in experimental myocardial infarction.

AIMS: Macrophages have a critical and dual role in post-ischaemic cardiac repair, as they can foster both tissue healing and damage. Multiple subsets of tissue resident and monocyte-derived macrophages coexist in the infarcted heart, but their precise identity, temporal dynamics, and the mechanisms regulating their acquisition of discrete states are not fully understood. To address this, we used multi-modal single-cell immune profiling, combined with targeted cell depletion and macrophage fate mapping, to precisely map monocyte/macrophage transitions after experimental myocardial infarction. METHODS AND RESULTS: We performed single-cell transcriptomic and cell-surface marker profiling of circulating and cardiac immune cells in mice challenged with acute myocardial infarction, and integrated single-cell transcriptomes obtained before and at 1, 3, 5, 7, and 11 days after infarction. Using complementary strategies of CCR2+ monocyte depletion and fate mapping of tissue resident macrophages, we determined the origin of cardiac macrophage populations. The macrophage landscape of the infarcted heart was dominated by monocyte-derived cells comprising two pro-inflammatory populations defined as Isg15hi and MHCII+Il1b+, alongside non-inflammatory Trem2hi cells. Trem2hi macrophages were observed in the ischaemic area, but not in the remote viable myocardium, and comprised two subpopulations sequentially populating the heart defined as Trem2hiSpp1hi monocyte-to-macrophage intermediates, and fully differentiated Trem2hiGdf15hi macrophages. Cardiac Trem2hi macrophages showed similarities to 'lipid-associated macrophages' found in mouse models of metabolic diseases and were observed in the human heart, indicating conserved features of this macrophage state across diseases and species. Ischaemic injury induced a shift of circulating Ly6Chi monocytes towards a Chil3hi state with granulocyte-like features, but the acquisition of the Trem2hi macrophage signature occurred in the ischaemic tissue. In vitro, macrophages acquired features of the Trem2hi signature following apoptotic-cell efferocytosis. CONCLUSION: Our work provides a comprehensive map of monocyte/macrophage transitions in the ischaemic heart, constituting a valuable resource for further investigating how these cells may be harnessed and modulated to promote post-ischaemic heart repair.

[scRNA-sequencing uncovers metabolism and CD52 as new targets in ibrutinib-surviving mantle cell lymphoma cells]. / Eine Einzelzell-RNA-Sequenzierung identifiziert Metabolismus und CD52 als neue Angriffspunkte in Ibrutinib-persistenten Mantelzelllymphomzellen.

BACKGROUND: Ibrutinib improves the treatment of relapsed or refractory mantle cell lymphoma, a mature B cell neoplasm. However, relapses following treatment with this Bruton tyrosine kinase inhibitor occur frequently, and the outcome of affected patients is poor. OBJECTIVES: Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) can track trends in gene expression of mantle cell lymphoma cells across ibrutinib treatment and new therapeutic targets can be defined based on the detected resistance mechanisms. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The ibrutinib-sensitive mantle cell lymphoma cell line REC­1 was treated with ibrutinib for 6 h and 48 h. Droplet-based scRNA-seq was performed to examine the transcriptomic alterations of surviving cells using the 10× Genomics platform. Extracellular flux analysis and flow cytometry were applied to further study the observed adaptations to ibrutinib treatment. RESULTS: REC­1 harbored a subpopulation with potential for crosstalk with microenvironment and therefore greater risk for aggressiveness and drug resistance. Following ibrutinib treatment, NF-κB signaling was turned off. In contrast, the cells upregulated B-cell receptor genes and surface antigens such as CD52, and switched their metabolism to increased dependence on oxidative phosphorylation. CONCLUSIONS: Targeting oxidative phosphorylation or CD52 in combination with or as follow-up to ibrutinib might overcome resistance and provide improved prognosis for mantle cell lymphoma patients.

Postnatal expansion of mesenteric lymph node stromal cells towards reticular and CD34+ stromal cell subsets.

Gut-draining mesenteric lymph nodes (LN) provide the framework to shape intestinal adaptive immune responses. Based on the transcriptional signatures established by our previous work, the composition and immunomodulatory function of LN stromal cells (SC) vary according to location. Here, we describe the single-cell composition and development of the SC compartment within mesenteric LNs derived from postnatal to aged mice. We identify CD34+ SC and fibroblastic reticular stromal cell (FRC) progenitors as putative progenitors, both supplying the typical rapid postnatal mesenteric LN expansion. We further establish the location-specific chromatin accessibility and DNA methylation landscape of non-endothelial SCs and identify a microbiota-independent core epigenomic signature, showing characteristic differences between SCs from mesenteric and skin-draining peripheral LNs. The epigenomic landscape of SCs points to dynamic expression of Irf3 along the differentiation trajectories of FRCs. Accordingly, a mesenchymal stem cell line acquires a Cxcl9+ FRC molecular phenotype upon lentiviral overexpression of Irf3, and the relevance of Irf3 for SC biology is further underscored by the diminished proportion of Ccl19+ and Cxcl9+ FRCs in LNs of Irf3-/- mice. Together, our data constitute a comprehensive transcriptional and epigenomic map of mesenteric LNSC development in early life and dissect location-specific, microbiota-independent properties of non-endothelial SCs.

Helicobacter pylori shows tropism to gastric differentiated pit cells dependent on urea chemotaxis.

The human gastric epithelium forms highly organized gland structures with different subtypes of cells. The carcinogenic bacterium Helicobacter pylori can attach to gastric cells and subsequently translocate its virulence factor CagA, but the possible host cell tropism of H. pylori is currently unknown. Here, we report that H. pylori preferentially attaches to differentiated cells in the pit region of gastric units. Single-cell RNA-seq shows that organoid-derived monolayers recapitulate the pit region, while organoids capture the gland region of the gastric units. Using these models, we show that H. pylori preferentially attaches to highly differentiated pit cells, marked by high levels of GKN1, GKN2 and PSCA. Directed differentiation of host cells enable enrichment of the target cell population and confirm H. pylori preferential attachment and CagA translocation into these cells. Attachment is independent of MUC5AC or PSCA expression, and instead relies on bacterial TlpB-dependent chemotaxis towards host cell-released urea, which scales with host cell size.

Accumulation of cytotoxic T cells in the aged CNS leads to axon degeneration and contributes to cognitive and motor decline.

Aging is a major risk factor for the development of nervous system functional decline, even in the absence of diseases or trauma. The axon-myelin units and synaptic terminals are some of the neural structures most vulnerable to aging-related deterioration1-6, but the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. In the peripheral nervous system, macrophages-important representatives of the innate immune system-are prominent drivers of structural and functional decline of myelinated fibers and motor endplates during aging7. Similarly, in the aging central nervous system (CNS), microglial cells promote damage of myelinated axons and synapses8-20. Here we examine the role of cytotoxic CD8+ T lymphocytes, a type of adaptive immune cells previously identified as amplifiers of axonal perturbation in various models of genetically mediated CNS diseases21 but understudied in the aging CNS22-25. We show that accumulation of CD8+ T cells drives axon degeneration in the normal aging mouse CNS and contributes to age-related cognitive and motor decline. We characterize CD8+ T-cell population heterogeneity in the adult and aged mouse brain by single-cell transcriptomics and identify aging-related changes. Mechanistically, we provide evidence that CD8+ T cells drive axon degeneration in a T-cell receptor- and granzyme B-dependent manner. Cytotoxic neural damage is further aggravated by systemic inflammation in aged but not adult mice. We also find increased densities of T cells in white matter autopsy material from older humans. Our results suggest that targeting CD8+ CNS-associated T cells in older adults might mitigate aging-related decline of brain structure and function.

The healing myocardium mobilizes a distinct B-cell subset through a CXCL13-CXCR5-dependent mechanism.

AIMS: Recent studies have revealed that B cells and antibodies can influence inflammation and remodelling following a myocardial infarction (MI) and culminating in heart failure-but the mechanisms underlying these observations remain elusive. We therefore conducted in mice a deep phenotyping of the post-MI B-cell responses in infarcted hearts and mediastinal lymph nodes, which drain the myocardium. Thereby, we sought to dissect the mechanisms controlling B-cell mobilization and activity in situ. METHODS AND RESULTS: Histological, flow cytometry, and single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) analyses revealed a rapid accumulation of diverse B-cell subsets in infarcted murine hearts, paralleled by mild clonal expansion of germinal centre B cells in the mediastinal lymph nodes. The repertoire of cardiac B cells was largely polyclonal and showed no sign of antigen-driven clonal expansion. Instead, it included a distinct subset exclusively found in the heart, herein termed 'heart-associated B cells' (hB) that expressed high levels of Cd69 as an activation marker, C-C-chemokine receptor type 7 (Ccr7), CXC-chemokine receptor type 5 (Cxcr5), and transforming growth factor beta 1 (Tgfb1). This distinct signature was not shared with any other cell population in the healing myocardium. Moreover, we detected a myocardial gradient of CXC-motif chemokine ligand 13 (CXCL13, the ligand of CXCR5) on Days 1 and 5 post-MI. When compared with wild-type controls, mice treated with a neutralizing CXCL13-specific antibody as well as CXCR5-deficient mice showed reduced post-MI infiltration of B cells and reduced local Tgfb1 expression but no differences in contractile function nor myocardial morphology were observed between groups. CONCLUSION: Our study reveals that polyclonal B cells showing no sign of antigen-specificity readily infiltrate the heart after MI via the CXCL13-CXCR5 axis and contribute to local TGF-ß1 production. The local B-cell responses are paralleled by mild antigen-driven germinal centre reactions in the mediastinal lymph nodes that might ultimately lead to the production of specific antibodies.