The dynamin Vps1 mediates Atg9 transport to the sites of autophagosome formation.

Autophagy is a key process in eukaryotes to maintain cellular homeostasis by delivering cellular components to lysosomes/vacuoles for degradation and reuse of the resulting metabolites. Membrane rearrangements and trafficking events are mediated by the core machinery of autophagy-related (Atg) proteins, which carry out a variety of functions. How Atg9, a lipid scramblase and the only conserved transmembrane protein within this core Atg machinery, is trafficked during autophagy remained largely unclear. Here, we addressed this question in yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and found that retromer complex and dynamin Vps1 mutants alter Atg9 subcellular distribution and severely impair the autophagic flux by affecting two separate autophagy steps. We provide evidence that Vps1 interacts with Atg9 at Atg9 reservoirs. In the absence of Vps1, Atg9 fails to reach the sites of autophagosome formation, and this results in an autophagy defect. The function of Vps1 in autophagy requires its GTPase activity. Moreover, Vps1 point mutants associated with human diseases such as microcytic anemia and Charcot-Marie-Tooth are unable to sustain autophagy and affect Atg9 trafficking. Together, our data provide novel insights on the role of dynamins in Atg9 trafficking and suggest that a defect in this autophagy step could contribute to severe human pathologies.

Retromer and the dynamin Vps1 cooperate in the retrieval of transmembrane proteins from vacuoles.

Endosomes are dynamic organelles that need to combine the ability to successfully deliver proteins and lipids to the lysosome-like vacuole, and recycle others to the Golgi or the plasma membrane. We now show that retromer, which is implicated in retrieval of proteins from endosomes to the Golgi or to the plasma membrane, can act on vacuoles. We explore its function using an assay that allows us to dissect the required cofactors during recycling. We demonstrate that recycling of the transmembrane receptor Vps10 from vacuoles requires the retromer, the dynamin-like Vps1, and the Rab7 GTPase Ypt7. Retromer and Vps1 leave the vacuole together with the cargo, whereas Ypt7 stays behind, in agreement with its regulatory function. Recycled cargo then accumulates at endosomes and later at the Golgi, implying consecutive sorting steps to the final destination. Our data further suggest that retromer and Vps1 are essential to maintain vacuole membrane organization. Taken together, our data demonstrate that retromer can cooperate with Vps1 and the Rab Ypt7 to clear the vacuole of selected membrane proteins.

The I-BAR protein Ivy1 is an effector of the Rab7 GTPase Ypt7 involved in vacuole membrane homeostasis.

Membrane fusion at the vacuole depends on a conserved machinery that includes SNAREs, the Rab7 homolog Ypt7 and its effector HOPS. Here, we demonstrate that Ypt7 has an unexpected additional function by controlling membrane homeostasis and nutrient-dependent signaling on the vacuole surface. We show that Ivy1, the yeast homolog of mammalian missing-in-metastasis (MIM), is a vacuolar effector of Ypt7-GTP and interacts with the EGO/ragulator complex, an activator of the target of rapamycin kinase complex 1 (TORC1) on vacuoles. Loss of Ivy1 does not affect EGO vacuolar localization and function. In combination with the deletion of individual subunits of the V-ATPase, however, we observed reduced TORC1 activity and massive enlargement of the vacuole surface. Consistent with this, Ivy1 localizes to invaginations at the vacuole surface and on liposomes in a phosphoinositide- and Ypt7-GTP-controlled manner, which suggests a role in microautophagy. Our data, thus, reveal that Ivy1 is a novel regulator of vacuole membrane homeostasis with connections to TORC1 signaling.

Yeast cell wall integrity sensors form specific plasma membrane microdomains important for signalling.

The cell wall integrity (CWI) pathway of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae relies on the detection of cell surface stress by five sensors (Wsc1, Wsc2, Wsc3, Mid2, Mtl1). Each sensor contains a single transmembrane domain and a highly mannosylated extracellular region, and probably detects mechanical stress in the cell wall or the plasma membrane. We here studied the distribution of the five sensors at the cell surface by using fluorescently tagged variants in conjunction with marker proteins for established membrane compartments. We find that each of the sensors occupies a specific microdomain at the plasma membrane. The novel punctate 'membrane compartment occupied by Wsc1' (MCW) shows moderate overlap with other Wsc-type sensors, but not with those of the Mid-type sensors or other established plasma membrane domains. We further observed that sensor density and formation of the MCW compartment depends on the cysteine-rich head group near the N-terminus of Wsc1. Yet, signalling capacity depends more on the sensor density in the plasma membrane than on clustering within its microcompartment. We propose that the MCW microcompartment provides a quality control mechanism for retaining functional sensors at the plasma membrane to prevent them from endocytosis.

Functional separation of endosomal fusion factors and the class C core vacuole/endosome tethering (CORVET) complex in endosome biogenesis.

Transport along the endolysosomal system requires multiple fusion events at early and late endosomes. Deletion of several endosomal fusion factors, including the Vac1 tether and the Class C core vacuole/endosome tethering (CORVET) complex-specific subunits Vps3 and Vps8, results in a class D vps phenotype. As these mutants have an apparently similar defect in endosomal transport, we asked whether CORVET and Vac1 could still act in distinct tethering reactions. Our data reveal that CORVET mutants can be rescued by Vac1 overexpression in the endocytic pathway but not in CPY or Cps1 sorting to the vacuole. Moreover, when we compared the ultrastructure, CORVET mutants were most similar to deletions of the Rab Vps21 and its guanine nucleotide exchange factor Vps9 and different from vac1 deletion, indicating separate functions. Likewise, CORVET still localized to endosomes even in the absence of Vac1, whereas Vac1 localization became diffuse in CORVET mutants. Importantly, CORVET localization requires the Rab5 homologs Vps21 and Ypt52, whereas Vac1 localization is strictly Vps21-dependent. In this context, we also uncover that Muk1 can compensate for loss of Vps9 in CORVET localization, indicating that two Rab5 guanine nucleotide exchange factors operate in the endocytic pathway. Overall, our study reveals a unique role of CORVET in the sorting of biosynthetic cargo to the vacuole/lysosome.

An overexpression screen in Saccharomyces cerevisiae identifies novel genes that affect endocytic protein trafficking.

A large number of proteins involved in the biogenesis of yeast endosomes and vacuoles have been identified based on screens that scored for inactivation of proteins. Such screens may, however, miss important regulators of the pathway. Here, we present a visual screen in which we examined the effects on vacuole morphology if any of the 6153 yeast open reading frames was overexpressed. Using a progressive screening procedure, we could identify a total of 53 genes. Among the most striking endosomal proteins are the CORVET/HOPS subunits Vps3, Vps18 and Vps39 and the putative tethering inhibitor Ivy1. Furthermore, six endosomal sorting complex related to transport (ESCRT) proteins led to altered vacuole morphology if overproduced. Among the novel proteins, we identify Yer128w as an endosomal protein that interacts with the AAA-ATPase Vps4, and therefore named it Vfa1 (Vps Four-Associated 1). We present evidence on the possible role of these novel proteins in trafficking to the vacuole. Our data provide novel insights into the regulation of protein trafficking.

Structure and function of lipid droplet assembly complexes.

Cells store lipids as a reservoir of metabolic energy and membrane component precursors in organelles called lipid droplets (LDs). LD formation occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) at LD assembly complexes (LDAC), consisting of an oligomeric core of seipin and accessory proteins. LDACs determine the sites of LD formation and are required for this process to occur normally. Seipin oligomers form a cage-like structure in the membrane that may serve to facilitate the phase transition of neutral lipids in the membrane to form an oil droplet within the LDAC. Modeling suggests that, as the LD grows, seipin anchors it to the ER bilayer and conformational shifts of seipin transmembrane segments open the LDAC dome toward the cytoplasm, enabling the emerging LD to egress from the ER.

The Rab GTPase Ypt7 is linked to retromer-mediated receptor recycling and fusion at the yeast late endosome.

Organelles of the endomembrane system need to counterbalance fission and fusion events to maintain their surface-to-volume ratio. At the late mammalian endosome, the Rab GTPase Rab7 is a major regulator of fusion, whereas the homologous yeast protein Ypt7 seems to be restricted to the vacuole surface. Here, we present evidence that Ypt7 is recruited to and acts on late endosomes, where it affects multiple trafficking reactions. We show that overexpression of Ypt7 results in expansion and massive invagination of the vacuolar membrane, which requires cycling of Ypt7 between GDP- and GTP-bound states. Invaginations are blocked by ESCRT, CORVET and retromer mutants, but not by autophagy or AP-3 mutants. We also show that Ypt7-GTP specifically binds to the retromer cargo-recognition subcomplex, which--like its cargo Vps10--is found on the vacuole upon Ypt7 overproduction. Our data suggest that Ypt7 functions at the late endosome to coordinate retromer-mediated recycling with the fusion of late endosomes with vacuoles.

Seipin transmembrane segments critically function in triglyceride nucleation and lipid droplet budding from the membrane.

Lipid droplets (LDs) are organelles formed in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to store triacylglycerol (TG) and sterol esters. The ER protein seipin is key for LD biogenesis. Seipin forms a cage-like structure, with each seipin monomer containing a conserved hydrophobic helix and two transmembrane (TM) segments. How the different parts of seipin function in TG nucleation and LD budding is poorly understood. Here, we utilized molecular dynamics simulations of human seipin, along with cell-based experiments, to study seipin's functions in protein-lipid interactions, lipid diffusion, and LD maturation. An all-atom simulation indicates that seipin TM segment residues and hydrophobic helices residues located in the phospholipid tail region of the bilayer attract TG. Simulating larger, growing LDs with coarse-grained models, we find that the seipin TM segments form a constricted neck structure to facilitate conversion of a flat oil lens into a budding LD. Using cell experiments and simulations, we also show that conserved, positively charged residues at the end of seipin's TM segments affect LD maturation. We propose a model in which seipin TM segments critically function in TG nucleation and LD growth.

Seipin forms a flexible cage at lipid droplet formation sites.

Lipid droplets (LDs) form in the endoplasmic reticulum by phase separation of neutral lipids. This process is facilitated by the seipin protein complex, which consists of a ring of seipin monomers, with a yet unclear function. Here, we report a structure of S. cerevisiae seipin based on cryogenic-electron microscopy and structural modeling data. Seipin forms a decameric, cage-like structure with the lumenal domains forming a stable ring at the cage floor and transmembrane segments forming the cage sides and top. The transmembrane segments interact with adjacent monomers in two distinct, alternating conformations. These conformations result from changes in switch regions, located between the lumenal domains and the transmembrane segments, that are required for seipin function. Our data indicate a model for LD formation in which a closed seipin cage enables triacylglycerol phase separation and subsequently switches to an open conformation to allow LD growth and budding.

A Systematic Protein Turnover Map for Decoding Protein Degradation.

Protein degradation is mediated by an expansive and complex network of protein modification and degradation enzymes. Matching degradation enzymes with their targets and determining globally which proteins are degraded by the proteasome or lysosome/vacuole have been a major challenge. Furthermore, an integrated view of protein degradation for cellular pathways has been lacking. Here, we present an analytical platform that combines systematic gene deletions with quantitative measures of protein turnover to deconvolve protein degradation pathways for Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The resulting turnover map (T-MAP) reveals target candidates of nearly all E2 and E3 ubiquitin ligases and identifies the primary degradation routes for most proteins. We further mined this T-MAP to identify new substrates of ER-associated degradation (ERAD) involved in sterol biosynthesis and to uncover regulatory nodes for sphingolipid biosynthesis. The T-MAP approach should be broadly applicable to the study of other cellular processes, including mammalian systems.

Rab18 is not necessary for lipid droplet biogenesis or turnover in human mammary carcinoma cells.

Rab GTPases recruit peripheral membrane proteins and can define organelle identity. Rab18 localizes to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) but also to lipid droplets (LDs), where it has been implicated in effector protein recruitment and in defining LD identity. Here, we studied Rab18 localization and function in a human mammary carcinoma cell line. Rab18 localized to the ER and to LD membranes on LD induction, with the latter depending on the Rab18 activation state. In cells lacking Rab18, LDs were modestly reduced in size and numbers, but we found little evidence for Rab18 function in LD formation, LD turnover on cell starvation, or the targeting of several proteins to LDs. We conclude that Rab18 is not a general, necessary component of the protein machinery involved in LD biogenesis or turnover.

Cryo-electron microscopy structure of the lipid droplet-formation protein seipin.

Metabolic energy is stored in cells primarily as triacylglycerols in lipid droplets (LDs), and LD dysregulation leads to metabolic diseases. The formation of monolayer-bound LDs from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) bilayer is poorly understood, but the ER protein seipin is essential to this process. In this study, we report a cryo-electron microscopy structure and functional characterization of Drosophila melanogaster seipin. The structure reveals a ring-shaped dodecamer with the luminal domain of each monomer resolved at ∼4.0 Å. Each luminal domain monomer exhibits two distinctive features: a hydrophobic helix (HH) positioned toward the ER bilayer and a ß-sandwich domain with structural similarity to lipid-binding proteins. This structure and our functional testing in cells suggest a model in which seipin oligomers initially detect forming LDs in the ER via HHs and subsequently act as membrane anchors to enable lipid transfer and LD growth.

Retromer-driven membrane tubulation separates endosomal recycling from Rab7/Ypt7-dependent fusion.

Endosomes are the major protein-sorting hubs of the endocytic pathway. They sort proteins destined for degradation into internal vesicles while in parallel recycling receptors via tubular carriers back to the Golgi. Tubule formation depends on the Rab7/Ypt7-interacting retromer complex, consisting of the sorting nexin dimer (SNX-BAR) and the trimeric cargo selection complex (CSC). Fusion of mature endosomes with the lysosome-like vacuole also requires Rab7/Ypt7. Here we solve a major problem in understanding this dual function of endosomal Rab7/Ypt7, using a fully reconstituted system, including purified, full-length yeast SNX-BAR and CSC, whose overall structure we present. We reveal that the membrane-active SNX-BAR complex displaces Ypt7 from cargo-bound CSC during formation of recycling tubules. This explains how a single Rab can coordinate recycling and fusion on endosomes.

Spatiotemporal dynamics of membrane remodeling and fusion proteins during endocytic transport.

Organelles of the endolysosomal system undergo multiple fission and fusion events to combine sorting of selected proteins to the vacuole with endosomal recycling. This sorting requires a consecutive remodeling of the organelle surface in the course of endosomal maturation. Here we dissect the remodeling and fusion machinery on endosomes during the process of endocytosis. We traced selected GFP-tagged endosomal proteins relative to exogenously added fluorescently labeled α-factor on its way from the plasma membrane to the vacuole. Our data reveal that the machinery of endosomal fusion and ESCRT proteins has similar temporal localization on endosomes, whereas they precede the retromer cargo recognition complex. Neither deletion of retromer nor the fusion machinery with the vacuole affects this maturation process, although the kinetics seems to be delayed due to ESCRT deletion. Of importance, in strains lacking the active Rab7-like Ypt7 or the vacuolar SNARE fusion machinery, α-factor still proceeds to late endosomes with the same kinetics. This indicates that endosomal maturation is mainly controlled by the early endosomal fusion and remodeling machinery but not the downstream Rab Ypt7 or the SNARE machinery. Our data thus provide important further understanding of endosomal biogenesis in the context of cargo sorting.

Tracking of the dynamic localization of the Rab-specific HOPS subunits reveal their distinct interaction with Ypt7 and vacuoles.

Endosomal and vacuole fusion depends on the two homologous tethering complexes CORVET and HOPS. HOPS binds the activated Rab GTPase Ypt7 via two distinct subunits, Vps39 and Vps41. To understand the participation and possible polarity of Vps41 and Vps39 during tethering, we used an in vivo approach. For this, we established the ligand-induced relocalization to the plasma membrane, using the Mon1-Ccz1 GEF complex that activates Ypt7 on endosomes. We then employed slight overexpression to compare the mobility of the HOPS-specific Vps41 and Vps39 subunits during this process. Our data indicate an asymmetry in the Rab-specific interaction of the two HOPS subunits: Vps39 is more tightly bound to the vacuole, and relocalizes the entire vacuole to the plasma membrane, whereas Vps41 behaved like the more mobile subunit. This is due to their specific Rab binding, as the mobility of both subunits was similar in ypt7∆ cells. In contrast, both HOPS subunits were far less mobile if tagged endogenously, suggesting that the entire HOPS complex is tightly bound to the vacuole in vivo. Similar results were obtained for the endosomal association of CORVET, when we followed its Rab-specific subunit Vps8. Our data provide in vivo evidence for distinct Rab specificity within HOPS, which may explain its function during tethering, and indicate that these tethering complexes are less mobile within the cell than previously anticipated.

The CORVET subunit Vps8 cooperates with the Rab5 homolog Vps21 to induce clustering of late endosomal compartments.

Membrane tethering, the process of mediating the first contact between membranes destined for fusion, requires specialized multisubunit protein complexes and Rab GTPases. In the yeast endolysosomal system, the hexameric HOPS tethering complex cooperates with the Rab7 homolog Ypt7 to promote homotypic fusion at the vacuole, whereas the recently identified homologous CORVET complex acts at the level of late endosomes. Here, we have further functionally characterized the CORVET-specific subunit Vps8 and its relationship to the remaining subunits using an in vivo approach that allows the monitoring of late endosome biogenesis. In particular, our results indicate that Vps8 interacts and cooperates with the activated Rab5 homolog Vps21 to induce the clustering of late endosomal membranes, indicating that Vps8 is the effector subunit of the CORVET complex. This clustering, however, requires Vps3, Vps16, and Vps33 but not the remaining CORVET subunits. These data thus suggest that the CORVET complex is built of subunits with distinct activities and potentially, their sequential assembly could regulate tethering and successive fusion at the late endosomes.