Early neurological manifestations of hospitalized COVID-19 patients.

INTRODUCTION: Neurological manifestations can occur during coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19). Several pathogenic mechanisms have been hypothesized, without conclusive results. In this study, we evaluated the most frequent neurological symptoms in a cohort of hospitalized COVID-19 patients, and also investigated the possible relationship between plasmatic inflammatory indices and olfactory disorders (ODs) and between muscle pain and creatine kinase (CK). METHODS: We consecutively enrolled hospitalized COVID-19 patients. A structured questionnaire concerning typical and neurological symptoms, focusing on headache, dizziness, ODs, taste disorders (TDs), and muscle pain, was administrated by telephone interviews. RESULTS: Common neurological symptoms were reported in the early phase of the disease, with a median onset ranging from 1 to 3 days. Headache showed tension-type features and was more frequently associated with a history of headache. Patients with ODs less frequently needed oxygen therapy. Inflammatory indices did not significantly differ between patients with and without ODs. Muscle pain did not show any association with CK level but was more frequently associated with arthralgia and headache. CONCLUSION: In our cohort, ODs were an early symptom of COVID-19, more frequently reported by patients with milder forms of disease. Headache in association with arthralgia and muscle pain seems to reflect the common symptoms of the flu-like syndrome, and not COVID-19 infection-specific.

Headache in epilepsy: prevalence and clinical features.

BACKGROUND: Headache and epilepsy are two relatively common neurological disorders and their relationship is still a matter of debate. Our aim was to estimate the prevalence and clinical features of inter-ictal (inter-IH) and peri-ictal headache (peri-IH) in patients with epilepsy. METHODS: All patients aged ≥ 17 years referring to our tertiary Epilepsy Centre were consecutively recruited from March to May 2011 and from March to July 2012. They underwent a semi-structured interview including the International Classification Headache Disorders (ICHD-II) criteria to diagnose the lifetime occurrence of headache.χ(2)-test, t-test and Mann-Whitney test were used to compare clinical variables in patients with and without inter-IH and peri-IH. RESULTS: Out of 388 enrolled patients 48.5 % had inter-IH: migraine in 26.3 %, tension-type headache (TTH) in 19.1 %, other primary headaches in 3.1 %. Peri-IH was observed in 23.7 %: pre-ictally in 6.7 %, ictally in 0.8 % and post-ictally in 19.1 %. Comparing patients with inter-ictal migraine (102), inter-ictal TTH (74) and without inter-IH (200), we found that pre-ictal headache (pre-IH) was significantly represented only in migraineurs (OR 3.54, 95 % CI 1.88-6.66, P < 0.001). Post-ictal headache (post-IH) was significantly associated with both migraineurs (OR 2.60, 95 % CI 1.85-3.64, P < 0.001) and TTH patients (OR 2.05, 95 % CI 1.41-2.98, P < 0.001). Moreover, post-IH was significantly associated with antiepileptic polytherapy (P < 0.001), high seizure frequency (P = 0.002) and tonic-clonic seizures (P = 0.043). CONCLUSIONS: Migraine was the most represented type of headache in patients with epilepsy. Migraineurs are more prone to develop pre-IH, while patients with any inter-IH (migraine or TTH) are predisposed to manifest a post-IH after seizures.

Development of a disability scale for myotonic dystrophy type 1.

OBJECTIVES: Myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1) is a multisystem disorder. Many tests in the literature have evaluated single aspects of DM1 patients, mainly focusing on muscular impairment, without an overall quantification of the different disease-specific neurological features. We developed and validated a new functional scale for DM1 patients based on neuromuscular impairment (NI) and disability. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Thirty-three patients were tested in basal condition, 18 were re-evaluated after therapeutic intervention with mexiletine, and 13 at one year follow-up without treatment. The scale includes 21 ordinal items in four areas: neuropsychology, motricity, myotonia and daily life activities. We evaluated inter- and intra-observer reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient, ICC and Spearman correlations, respectively), internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha), external validity (Spearman correlations between each area and other clinical and objective measurements and scales), and sensitivity to clinical changes after treatment or at follow-up. RESULTS: Our analysis provided good results for inter-observer agreement (ICC = 0.72-0.97), intra-observer reliability, and internal consistency for all areas (Cronbach's α > 0.73). Total score and single area subscores were significantly correlated to objective measurements, disease duration and multisystem involvement. Finally, the scale was sensitive to clinical changes disclosing a significant improvement after treatment in the items assessing myotonia, and also to disease progression showing a significant worsening in all areas but myotonia in untreated patients. DISCUSSION: Our scale provides a new practical measure to evaluate NI and disability of DM1 patients. Further longitudinal studies are warranted to confirm its reliability in tracking disease progression and severity over a longer period of time.

Epilepsy with auditory features: Contribution of known genes in 112 patients.

Epilepsy with Auditory Features (EAF) is a focal epilepsy syndrome mainly of unknown aetiology. LGI1 and RELN have been identified as the main cause of Autosomal Dominant EAF and anecdotally reported in non-familial cases. Pathogenic variants in SCN1A and DEPDC5 have also been described in a few EAF probands belonging to families with heterogeneous phenotypes and incomplete penetrance. We aimed to estimate the contribution of these genes to the disorder by evaluating the largest cohort of EAF. We included 112 unrelated EAF cases (male/female: 52/60) who underwent genetic analysis by next-generation sequencing (NGS) techniques. Thirty-three (29.5%) were familial cases. We identified a genetic diagnosis for 8% of our cohort, including pathogenic/likely pathogenic variants (4/8 novel) in LGI1 (2.7%, CI: 0.6-7.6); RELN (1.8%; CI: 0.2-6.3); SCN1A (2.7%; CI: 0.6-7.6) and DEPDC5 (0.9%; CI 0-4.9).This study shows that the contribution of each of the known genes to the overall disorder is limited and that the genetic background of EAF is still largely unknown. Our data emphasize the genetic heterogeneity of EAF and will inform the diagnosis and management of individuals with this disorder.

Autonomic innervation in multiple system atrophy and pure autonomic failure.

BACKGROUND: Pure autonomic failure (PAF) and multiple system atrophy (MSA) are both characterised by chronic dysautonomia although presenting different disability and prognosis. Skin autonomic function evaluation by indirect tests has revealed conflicting results in these disorders. Here, the authors report the first direct analysis of skin sympathetic fibres including structure and function in PAF and MSA to ascertain different underlying autonomic lesion sites which may help differentiate between the two conditions. METHODS: The authors studied eight patients with probable MSA (mean age 60±5 years) and nine patients fulfilling diagnostic criteria for PAF (64±8 years). They underwent head-up tilt test (HUTT), extensive microneurographic search for muscle and skin sympathetic nerve activities from peroneal nerve and punch skin biopsies from finger, thigh and leg to evaluate cholinergic and adrenergic autonomic dermal annexes innervation graded by a semiquantitative score presenting a high level of reliability. RESULTS: MSA and PAF patients presented a comparable neurogenic orthostatic hypotension during HUTT and high failure rate of microneurographic trials to record sympathetic nerve activity, suggesting a similar extent of chronic dysautonomia. In contrast, they presented different skin autonomic innervation in the immunofluorescence analysis. MSA patients showed a generally preserved skin autonomic innervation with a significantly higher score than PAF patients showing a marked postganglionic sympathetic denervation. In MSA patients with a long disease duration, morphological abnormalities and/or a slightly decreased autonomic score could be found in the leg reflecting a mild postganglionic involvement. CONCLUSION: Autonomic innervation study of skin annexes is a reliable method which may help differentiate MSA from PAF.

Denervation findings on EMG in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and correlation with prognostic milestones: Data from a retrospective study.

OBJECTIVE: To verify whether the finding of denervation activity on EMG at the time of diagnosis has a prognostic value in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). METHODS: We retrospectively studied all the patients discharged with a diagnosis of ALS between January 2009 and January 2017. 92 patients met the inclusion criteria. We mainly verified three prognostic targets:All EMG examinations were reviewed and a denervation score (DS) was calculated. The association of DS with clinical milestones was analysed, adjusting for disease duration, age , sex, and clinical phenotype. RESULTS: We found a significant association between bulbar DS and time to NIV/tracheostomy (HR: 3.34, 95% CI: 1.49 to 7.48, p = 0.002) and with survival (HR 3.633, 95% CI 1.681-7.848, p = 0.001), regardless of the clinical phenotype. Furthermore, we found a significant influence of a general DS on survival (HR: 2.62, 95% CI 1.335-5.160, p = 0.005). CONCLUSION: EMG assessment could be of value not just for ALS diagnosis but also for its intrinsic prognostic value. SIGNIFICANCE: EMG could provide additional information about the rate of progression of ALS as early as the diagnosis is made.

Sleep-related disorders and their relationship with MRI findings in multiple sclerosis.

Sleep-related disorders have been reported to have a higher prevalence in multiple sclerosis (MS) than in the general population. They are often undervalued for the presence of more severe physical problems and the occurrence at night, without a direct observation in common clinical practice, but if not recognized and treated they can negatively affect the quality of life causing daytime drowsiness and worsening fatigue. Sleep related disorders most commonly reported in MS are as follows: insomnia, sleep-related breathing disorders (SRBD), restless legs syndrome (RLS) and periodic limb movement disorders (PLMD). Secondary narcolepsy, REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) and propriospinal myoclonus have been also described in some case reports or series. The purpose of this review is to correlate the more common sleep disturbances in MS patients to the involvement of specific brain regions, analyzing their relationship with MRI findings. While insomnia is usually secondary to other disabling symptoms such as nocturia or pain, SRBD, RLS, narcolepsy, RBD and propriospinal myoclonus in MS patients can be the consequence of an injury of specific central nervous system (CNS) areas. Lesions in the pontine tegmentum and the dorsal medulla have been associated with SRBD, spinal cord lesions or atrophy with RLS, bilateral lesions in the lateral hypothalamus with narcolepsy-like symptoms, lesions in the dorsal pontine tegmentum with RBD and intramedullary demyelinating plaques in spinal cord with propriospinal myoclonus. MS specialists and general neurologists should be aware of these comorbidities since neuroimaging, which is routinely performed in MS, could provide helpful clinical indications on patients with secondary sleep-related disorders and to categorize symptomatic patients who need to underdo more in-depth sleep studies.

Anti-ganglioside antibodies in coeliac disease with neurological disorders.

BACKGROUND: Anti-ganglioside antibodies have been described in sera of coeliac patients with peripheral neuropathy and cerebellar ataxia. AIMS: To investigate the correlation between anti-ganglioside antibodies and neurological involvement in coeliac disease before and after gluten-free diet. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Twenty-two untreated coeliac patients with neurological dysfunction and 30 untreated coeliacs without neurological dysfunction, 20 patients with neurological disorders, 50 autoimmune disease and 20 blood donors were tested for anti-GM1, anti-GD1b and anti-GQ1b IgG and IgM antibodies by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS: IgG antibodies to at least one of the three antigens tested were positive in 64% of coeliac patients with neurological symptoms compared to 30% of coeliacs without neurological dysfunction (P=0.02), 50% of patients with neurological disorders (P=ns), 20% with autoimmune diseases (P=0.003) and none of blood donors (P=0.0001). A strict gluten-free diet determined anti-ganglioside antibody disappearance in about half of coeliacs. CONCLUSIONS: A significant correlation between anti-ganglioside antibodies and neurological disorders in patients with an underlying coeliac disease has been found. Anti-ganglioside antibodies may represent a new immunological marker to identify neurological impairment in patients with coeliac disease.

Clinical features of fatal familial insomnia: phenotypic variability in relation to a polymorphism at codon 129 of the prion protein gene.

Fatal Familial Insomnia is a hereditary prion disease characterized by a mutation at codon 178 of the prion protein gene cosegregating with the methionine polymorphism at codon 129 of the mutated allele. It is characterized by disturbances of the wake-sleep cycle, dysautonomia and somatomotor manifestations (myoclonus, ataxia, dysarthria, spasticity). PET studies disclose severe thalamic and additionally cortical hypometabolism. Neuropathology shows marked neuronal loss and gliosis in the thalamus, especially the medio-dorsal and anterior-ventral nuclei, olivary hypertrophy and some spongiosis of the cerebral cortex. Detailed analysis of 14 cases from 5 unrelated families showed that patients ran either a short (9.1 +/- 1.1 months) or a prolonged (30.8 +/- 21.3 months) clinical course according to whether they were homozygote met/met or heterozygote met/val at codon 129. Moreover, homozygotes had more prominent oneiric episodes, insomnia and dysautonomia at onset, whereas heterozygotes showed ataxia and dysarthria at onset, earlier sphincter loss and epileptic Grand Mal seizures; they also displayed more extensive cortical involvement on PET and at postmortem examination. Our data suggest that the phenotype expression of Fatal Familial Insomnia is related, at least partly, to the polymorphism at codon 129 of the prion protein-gene.

Diurnal blood pressure variation and hormonal correlates in fatal familial insomnia.

Fatal familial insomnia is a prion disease in which a selective thalamic degeneration leads to total sleep deprivation, hypertension, dysautonomia, adrenal overactivity, and impaired motor functions. With patients under continuous recumbency and polysomnographic control, we assessed the changes in the 24-hour patterns of blood pressure, heart rate, plasma catecholamines, corticotropin, and serum cortisol in three patients at different stages of the disease. Six healthy volunteers were used as control subjects. A dominant 24-hour component was detected at rhythm analysis of all variables, both in patients and control subjects. In the patients, the amplitudes gradually decreased as the disease progressed, leading to the obliteration of any significant dirunal variation only in the preterminal stage. A shift in phase corresponded to the loss of the nocturnal fall in blood pressure in an early stage of the disease, when nocturnal bradycardia was still preserved. Plasma cortisol was high and became increasingly elevated, whereas corticotropin remained within normal levels; abnormal nocturnal peaks appeared in their circadian patterns. The disrupted patterns of cortisol and blood pressure preceded the development of hypertension and severe dysautonomia, which in turn were paralleled by increasing catecholamine and heart rate levels. Our data demonstrate that in patients with fatal familial insomnia the changes detectable in the rhythmic component of diurnal blood pressure variability result in a pattern of secondary hypertension. Disturbances in thalamic, pituitary-adrenal, and autonomic functions seem to be involved in mediating these changes.

Progressive disruption of the circadian rhythm of melatonin in fatal familial insomnia.

Fatal familial insomnia (FFI) is a disease characterized by loss of sleep activity due to selective thalamic degeneration. To assess the secretory pattern of melatonin (MT) in FFI, we studied two cases of overt disease under standardized conditions and polysomnographic control. Each patient underwent repeated 24-h study sessions, and MT was assayed at 30-min intervals. Six healthy volunteers were used as controls. Slow wave sleep was never recorded, whereas occasional episodes of enacted dreaming accompanied by rapid ocular movements and complex muscular activities were documented, with no detectable rhythm. Plasma MT concentrations gradually decreased as the disease progressed. A significant circadian rhythm was detected in the earlier recordings, with decreasing amplitudes with disease progression. Complete rhythm obliteration was achieved in the most advanced stage. Normally placed nocturnal acrophases were detected in the earlier stages, but then a shift toward the daytime hours was observed. Thalamic lesions of FFI appear to determine a progressive disruption of the sleep/wake cycle accompanied by decreased circulating levels of MT, with progressive alterations in the circadian rhythm of this hormone. On the other hand, decreased secretion of MT may contribute to the sleep disturbances of FFI.

Fatal familial insomnia: behavioral and cognitive features.

Fatal familial insomnia (FFI) is a familial prion disease linked to a mutation of the prion protein gene. Neuropsychological investigations in seven patients with FFI belonging to two different families showed that the main behavioral and neuropsychological features are (1) early impairment of attention and vigilance, (2) memory deficits, mainly of the working memory, (3) impairment of temporal ordering of events, and (4) a progressive dream-like state with neuropsychological and behavioral features of a confusional state. Neuropathologic examination of six patients showed prominent neuronal loss and gliosis involving the anterior ventral and mediodorsal thalamic nuclei, with additional cerebral cortical involvement in two cases. Clinicopathologic correlations indicate that FFI is associated with a neuropsychological and behavioral syndrome that is distinct from the cortical and subcortical dementias, and Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome. These findings offer insights into the function of the thalamic nuclei and challenge the notion of thalamic dementia.

The prognostic value of the electroencephalogram in antiepileptic drug withdrawal in partial epilepsies.

We evaluated the prognostic value of the EEG in 120 seizure-free epileptic patients (49 with complex partial seizures with or without episodic secondarily generalization [CPS], 20 with simple partial seizures with or without episodic secondarily generalization [SPS], 51 with only secondarily generalized seizures [PSG] during and after antiepileptic drug withdrawal. All patients had EEG examination before; during; and 3, 12, 24, and 36 months after drug withdrawal. Relapse rates were 45% in CPS, 100% in SPS, and 65% in PSG. Before reduction, 36 patients had epileptiform EEG and 69% relapsed; in the group with normal EEG, 60% relapsed. EEG worsened in 36 patients, 83% relapsed, whereas only 54% of patients with unchanged EEG relapsed. EEG during but not at the start of drug withdrawal has a prognostic value in partial epilepsy.

Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy: genetic, biochemical, and phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopy study in an Italian family.

Three siblings of a family affected with Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) showed a mitochondrial DNA mutation at position 11778. The lactate response to a standardized effort was increased in only one case. Muscle biopsies and biochemistry of muscle and platelet mitochondrial enzymes were normal. All patients showed an altered energy metabolism during exercise and during recovery after exercise on phosphorus 31-magnetic resonance spectroscopy (31P-MRS) of muscle. Brain 31P-MRS showed a decreased energy reserve (decreased PCr/Pi ratio) in all patients. 31P-MRS noninvasively demonstrated an altered mitochondrial energy metabolism in muscle and, for the first time, in the brains of LHON patients.

Idiopathic recurring stupor.

Idiopathic recurring stupor (IRS) is a disease of unknown pathogenesis presenting with recurrent stuporous states. We describe three IRS patients in whom there were no metabolic, toxic, or structural brain dysfunctions. Ictal EEGs were characterized by fast (14- to 16-Hz), unreactive background activity. Flumazenil, a benzodiazepine receptor antagonist, promptly resolved the clinical and EEG picture. In all patients, ictal plasma determination showed a marked increase in benzodiazepine-like activity identified as endozepine-4. IRS may be due to an unexplained excess of endozepine-4.

Motor overactivity and loss of motor circadian rhythm in fatal familial insomnia: an actigraphic study.

The 24-hour rest-activity pattern and the amount of motor activity was studied in a patient with fatal familial insomnia (FFI) by means of wrist actigraphy. During the study, the patient underwent indirect calorimetry. The 52-day recording showed severe disruption of the 24-hour rest-activity pattern with increased motor activity up to 80%. The 24-hour energy expenditure, assayed in a respiration chamber, was strikingly elevated by 60%. Chronic motor overactivity and loss of circadian rest-activity rhythm may play a role in the progressive metabolic exhaustion leading to death in FFI patients.

Absence of sleep EEG markers in fatal familial insomnia healthy carriers: a spectral analysis study.

OBJECTIVES: Fatal familial insomnia (FFI) is linked to a mutation at codon 178 (C178) of the prion protein gene (PRNP). FFI is pathologically characterized by selective atrophy of the anteroventral and mediodorsal thalamic nuclei and clinically by loss of sleep, dysautonomia and motor signs. A key early polysomnographic sign of the disease onset is the loss of sleep spindling (sigma activity, SA). In FFI the loss of SA leads to the spectral representation of a sudden slow wave activity (SWA) increase from an awake state, the reaching of a stable plateau without oscillations, followed by abrupt fall down to REM sleep. We evaluated the presence of differences in the spectral sleep EEG pattern in FFI relatives carriers (C178(pos)) or non-carriers (C178(neg)) of the C178 mutation. METHODS: Seventeen healthy relatives of FFI patients, 8 carriers of the C178 FFI mutation in a preclinical condition and 9 non carriers, underwent two-night polysomnography. The absolute and relative EEG power of the 4 main bands (delta: SWA, 0.5-4.0 Hz; theta: TB, 4.5-8 Hz; alpha: AB, 8.5-12 Hz; sigma: SA, 12.5-16 Hz) has been studied for the total sleep time, the period of delta increase after sleep onset, and the period of delta plateau. Multiple regression has been applied to investigate relations between the power of the bands studied and 3 parameters: age, the gender of the subjects and the C178 genotype. RESULTS: Our study could not show evidence of differences in the sleep EEG composition between carriers and non-carriers of the C178 FFI mutation. CONCLUSIONS: The spectral analysis techniques we used were not able to disclose sleep EEG markers linked to the FFI C178(pos) in the preclinical condition. Key sleep EEG alteration become evident only at the clinical onset of the disease.

Response to a standard oral levodopa test in parkinsonian patients with and without motor fluctuations.

The acute dose-response profile of a standard oral levodopa dose was followed, over a maximum 8-h period, in 13 patients with and 10 patients without motor fluctuations using a battery of motor quantitative tests (tapping and walking speed, and multiple choice reaction and movement times). Thirteen age-matched normal controls performed tapping and psychomotor tests, at the same time intervals, over a 4-h period. Tapping test and movement times proved significantly impaired in all patients and were the best indicator of levodopa effect, while walking speed and reaction times were apparently of less value, except in severely affected patients. The duration of the levodopa antiparkinsonian effect differed markedly between the two groups, since fluctuating patients returned to prelevodopa dose values within 4 h (mean +/- SEM: 203 +/- 16 min), while in the stable group motor scores remained significantly higher than baseline values up to at least 7 h postdose. The magnitude of the effect was similar in the two groups, but response was complicated by mild to severe dyskinesias in 9 of 13 fluctuating subjects. The pharmacokinetic parameters of levodopa were almost identical in the two groups. Our data add further weight to the hypothesis that cerebral pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamic factors are responsible for motor fluctuations. Oral levodopa doses coupled with objective tests of motor performance may prove a practical clinical tool to assess and optimize the relationship between drug dose and therapeutic effect.