Targeting Peer Contagion Dynamics in Children with ADHD: Effects from a Two-Site Randomized Controlled Trial.

OBJECTIVE: Parental Friendship Coaching (PFC) teaches parents to coach their children in friendship skills. This paper examines whether PFC fosters positive peer contagion processes (i.e. dyadic mutuality) and reduces negative peer contagion processes (i.e. coercive joining) within the friendships of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). METHOD: Participants were 134 families of children with ADHD and peer problems (age 6-11 years; 69% male; 72% white) at two Canadian sites, randomized to PFC or CARE (an active comparison intervention). Children were observed in the lab at baseline, post-treatment, and at 8-month follow-up during cooperation and competition tasks with a real-life friend. Amount and reciprocity of dyadic mutuality indicators (i.e. positive affect and positive behaviors) and coercive joining indicators (i.e. aggressive, controlling, and rule-breaking behaviors) between friends were coded. RESULTS: Across treatment conditions, children showed an increase in the amount of dyadic mutuality during cooperation and a decrease in the amount of coercive joining during competition over time. Relative to CARE, PFC induced a reduced amount of coercive joining behaviors during cooperation at post-treatment and follow-up. However, PFC led to decreases in the reciprocity of positive affect during cooperation at post-treatment and to increases in the reciprocity of coercive joining during competition at follow-up relative to CARE. Moderation analyses suggest PFC was associated with better outcomes for children with externalizing comorbidity, and for those with a stable or a best friend. CONCLUSIONS: Findings highlight the importance of transactional processes, contextual differences, externalizing comorbidities, and friendship status when assessing the efficacy of PFC.

Active Direction: A new observational measure of African American parenting.

A new observational measure of a culturally salient, supportive African American parenting style, Active Direction, was developed. Ratings were compared to standard qualitative ratings and across two ethnic groups. Active Direction represents the provision of structure to interactions in the form of corrective direction with clear and concise feedback that is assessed for supportiveness rather than simple content or tone. The 7-point rating item was examined in observations of African American (n = 172) and Hispanic American (n = 196) mother-child interactions collected at age 2.5 years in families from low-income households. Ratings were compared and associations to previously reported ratings of the interactions were examined. Active Direction was often observed among the African American mothers (81%) but rarely observed among the Hispanic mothers (16%), with a large effect size difference, supporting the hypothesis that Active Direction may represent a culturally specific approach to parenting for African American parents. Maternal behavior correlations of Active Direction with cognitive stimulation, intrusiveness, scaffolding, and calm authority and with child affiliative obedience and dyadic routines and rituals were significantly higher and detachment significantly lower in the African American compared to the Hispanic sample. The new measure of Active Direction, centered around culturally salient values and differences in both historical and lived experiences, addresses characteristics of parenting in African American families that are supportive of their children's development and provides a fruitful direction for future research.