Cathepsin S causes inflammatory pain via biased agonism of PAR2 and TRPV4.

Serine proteases such as trypsin and mast cell tryptase cleave protease-activated receptor-2 (PAR2) at R(36)↓S(37) and reveal a tethered ligand that excites nociceptors, causing neurogenic inflammation and pain. Whether proteases that cleave PAR2 at distinct sites are biased agonists that also induce inflammation and pain is unexplored. Cathepsin S (Cat-S) is a lysosomal cysteine protease of antigen-presenting cells that is secreted during inflammation and which retains activity at extracellular pH. We observed that Cat-S cleaved PAR2 at E(56)↓T(57), which removed the canonical tethered ligand and prevented trypsin activation. In HEK and KNRK cell lines and in nociceptive neurons of mouse dorsal root ganglia, Cat-S and a decapeptide mimicking the Cat-S-revealed tethered ligand-stimulated PAR2 coupling to Gαs and formation of cAMP. In contrast to trypsin, Cat-S did not mobilize intracellular Ca(2+), activate ERK1/2, recruit ß-arrestins, or induce PAR2 endocytosis. Cat-S caused PAR2-dependent activation of transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) in Xenopus laevis oocytes, HEK cells and nociceptive neurons, and stimulated neuronal hyperexcitability by adenylyl cyclase and protein kinase A-dependent mechanisms. Intraplantar injection of Cat-S caused inflammation and hyperalgesia in mice that was attenuated by PAR2 or TRPV4 deletion and adenylyl cyclase inhibition. Cat-S and PAR2 antagonists suppressed formalin-induced inflammation and pain, which implicates endogenous Cat-S and PAR2 in inflammatory pain. Our results identify Cat-S as a biased agonist of PAR2 that causes PAR2- and TRPV4-dependent inflammation and pain. They expand the role of PAR2 as a mediator of protease-driven inflammatory pain.

Proteolytic activation of the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) by the cysteine protease cathepsin-S.

Proteolytic processing of the amiloride-sensitive epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) by serine proteases is known to be important for channel activation. Inappropriate ENaC activation by proteases may contribute to the pathophysiology of cystic fibrosis and could be involved in sodium retention and the pathogenesis of arterial hypertension in the context of renal disease. We hypothesized that in addition to serine proteases, cathepsin proteases may activate ENaC. Cathepsin proteases belong to the group of cysteine proteases and play a pathophysiological role in inflammatory diseases. Under pathophysiological conditions, cathepsin-S (Cat-S) may reach ENaC in the apical membrane of epithelial cells. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of purified Cat-S on human ENaC heterologously expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes and on ENaC-mediated sodium transport in cultured M-1 mouse renal collecting duct cells. We demonstrated that Cat-S activates amiloride-sensitive whole-cell currents in ENaC-expressing oocytes. The stimulatory effect of Cat-S was preserved at pH 5. ENaC stimulation by Cat-S was associated with the appearance of a γENaC cleavage fragment at the plasma membrane indicating proteolytic channel activation. Mutating two valine residues (V182 and V193) in the critical region of γENaC prevented proteolytic activation of ENaC by Cat-S. Pre-incubation of the oocytes with the Cat-S inhibitor morpholinurea-leucine-homophenylalanine-vinylsulfone-phenyl (LHVS) prevented the stimulatory effect of Cat-S on ENaC. In contrast, LHVS had no effect on ENaC activation by the prototypical serine proteases trypsin and chymotrypsin. Cat-S also stimulated ENaC in differentiated renal epithelial cells. These findings demonstrate that the cysteine protease Cat-S can activate ENaC which may be relevant under pathophysiological conditions.

A chromatin-remodeling protein is a component of fission yeast mediator.

The multiprotein Mediator complex is an important regulator of RNA polymerase II-dependent genes in eukaryotic cells. In contrast to the situation in many other eukaryotes, the conserved Med15 protein is not a stable component of Mediator isolated from fission yeast. We here demonstrate that Med15 exists in a protein complex together with Hrp1, a CHD1 ATP-dependent chromatin-remodeling protein. The Med15-Hrp1 subcomplex is not a component of the core Mediator complex but can interact with the L-Mediator conformation. Deletion of med15(+) and hrp1(+) causes very similar effects on global steady-state levels of mRNA, and genome-wide analyses demonstrate that Med15 associates with a distinct subset of Hrp1-bound gene promoters. Our findings therefore indicate that Mediator may directly influence histone density at regulated promoters.

A surface plasmon resonance-based biosensor with full-length BACE1 in a reconstituted membrane.

A surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensor-based assay for membrane-embedded full-length BACE1 (ß-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1), a drug target for Alzheimer's disease, has been developed. It allows the analysis of interactions with the protein in its natural lipid membrane environment. The enzyme was captured via an antibody recognizing a C-terminal His6 tag, after which a lipid membrane was reconstituted on the chip using a brain lipid extract. The interaction between the enzyme and several inhibitors confirmed that the surface was functional. It had slightly different interaction characteristics as compared with a reference surface with immobilized ectodomain BACE1 but had the same inhibitor characteristic pH effect. The possibility of studying interactions with BACE1 under more physiological conditions than assays using truncated enzyme or conditions dictated by high enzyme activity is expected to increase our understanding of the role of BACE1 in Alzheimer's disease and contribute to the discovery of clinically efficient BACE1 inhibitors. The strategy exploited in the current study can be adapted to other membrane-bound drug targets by selecting suitable capture antibodies and lipid mixtures for membrane reconstitution.

Effect of the protonation state of the titratable residues on the inhibitor affinity to BACE-1.

BACE-1 is one of the aspartic proteases involved in the cleavage of beta amyloid peptide, an initial step in the formation of amyloid plaques whose toxicity induces neuron death in Alzheimer's disease patients. One of the central issues in the search of novel BACE-1 inhibitors is the optimum pH for the binding of inhibitors to the enzyme. It is known that the enzyme has optimal catalytic activity at acidic pH, while cell active inhibitors may bind optimally at higher pH. In this work we determine the effect of the pH on the affinities of a set of inhibitors, with a variety of chemical motifs, for the ectodomain region of BACE-1 by a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensor based assay. In order to understand the molecular interactions that underlie the diverse optimum pH for the binding of the various inhibitors as observed experimentally, we have calculated the titration curves for a set of BACE-1 ligand complexes. The results indicate that the pK(a) values of the titratable residues of the protein depend on the nature of the ligand involved, in disagreement with previous work. The enzyme-inhibitor structures with the resulting protonation states at pH values 4.5 and 7.4 served as the starting point for the prediction of the pH-dependent binding ranking. Our calculations reproduced the entire affinity ranking observed upon pH increase and most of the binding trends among inhibitors, especially at low pH. Finally, our cell-based assays indicate a possible correlation between high inhibitor affinity at both acidic and neutral pH values, with optimal cell response, a result that may open new venues for the search of potent BACE-1 inhibitors that are active at the cellular level.

Two conserved modules of Schizosaccharomyces pombe Mediator regulate distinct cellular pathways.

Mediator is an evolutionary conserved coregulator complex required for transcription of almost all RNA polymerase II-dependent genes. The Schizosaccharomyces pombe Mediator consists of two dissociable components-a core complex organized into a head and middle domain as well as the Cdk8 regulatory subcomplex. In this work we describe a functional characterization of the S. pombe Mediator. We report the identification of the S. pombe Med20 head subunit and the isolation of ts alleles of the core head subunit encoding med17+. Biochemical analysis of med8(ts), med17(ts), Deltamed18, Deltamed20 and Deltamed27 alleles revealed a stepwise head domain molecular architecture. Phenotypical analysis of Cdk8 and head module alleles including expression profiling classified the Mediator mutant alleles into one of two groups. Cdk8 module mutants flocculate due to overexpression of adhesive cell-surface proteins. Head domain-associated mutants display a hyphal growth phenotype due to defective expression of factors required for cell separation regulated by transcription factor Ace2. Comparison with Saccharomyces cerevisiae Mediator expression data reveals that these functionally distinct modules are conserved between S. pombe and S. cerevisiae.

Cyclin C influences the timing of mitosis in fission yeast.

The multiprotein Mediator complex is required for the regulated transcription of nearly all RNA polymerase II-dependent genes. Mediator contains the Cdk8 regulatory subcomplex, which directs periodic transcription and influences cell cycle progression in fission yeast. Here we investigate the role of CycC, the cognate cyclin partner of Cdk8, in cell cycle control. Previous reports suggested that CycC interacts with other cellular Cdks, but a fusion of CycC to Cdk8 reported here did not cause any obvious cell cycle phenotypes. We find that Cdk8 and CycC interactions are stabilized within the Mediator complex and the activity of Cdk8-CycC is regulated by other Mediator components. Analysis of a mutant yeast strain reveals that CycC, together with Cdk8, primarily affects M-phase progression but mutations that release Cdk8 from CycC control also affect timing of entry into S phase.

Backbone Assignment of the MALT1 Paracaspase by Solution NMR.

Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma translocation protein 1 (MALT1) is a unique paracaspase protein whose protease activity mediates oncogenic NF-κB signalling in activated B cell-like diffuse large B cell lymphomas (ABC-DLBCLs). ABC-DLBCLs are aggressive lymphomas with high resistance to current chemotherapies. Low survival rate among patients emphasizes the urgent need for alternative treatment options. The characterization of the MALT1 will be an essential tool for developing new target-directed drugs against MALT1 dependent disorders. As the first step in the atomic-level NMR studies of the system, here we report, the (15)N/(13)C/(1)H backbone assignment of the apo form of the MALT1 paracaspase region together with the third immunoglobulin-like (Ig3) domain, 44 kDa, by high resolution NMR. In addition, the non-uniform sampling (NUS) based targeted acquisition procedure is evaluated as a mean of decreasing acquisition and analysis time for larger proteins.

Resolution of the interaction mechanisms and characteristics of non-nucleoside inhibitors of hepatitis C virus polymerase.

Development of allosteric inhibitors into efficient drugs is hampered by their indirect mode-of-action and complex structure-kinetic relationships. To enable the design of efficient allosteric drugs targeting the polymerase of hepatitis C virus (NS5B), the interaction characteristics of three non-nucleoside compounds (filibuvir, VX-222, and tegobuvir) inhibiting HCV replication via NS5B have been analyzed. Since there was no logical correlation between the anti-HCV replicative and enzyme inhibitory effects of the compounds, surface plasmon resonance biosensor technology was used to resolve the mechanistic, kinetic, thermodynamic and chemodynamic features of their interactions with their target and their effect on its interaction with RNA. Tegobuvir could not be seen to interact with NS5B at all while filibuvir interacted in a single reversible step (except at low temperatures) and VX-222 in two serial steps, interpreted as an induced fit mechanism. Both filibuvir and VX-222 interfered with the interaction between NS5B and RNA. They competed for binding to the enzyme, suggesting that they had a common inhibition mechanism and identical or overlapping binding sites. The greater anti-HCV replicative activity of VX-222 over filibuvir is hypothesized to be due to a greater allosteric conformational effect, resulting in the formation of a less catalytically competent complex. In addition, the induced fit mechanism of VX-222 gives it a kinetic advantage over filibuvir, exhibited as a longer residence time. These insights have important consequences for the selection and optimization of new allosteric NS5B inhibitors.

Cryo-EM reveals promoter DNA binding and conformational flexibility of the general transcription factor TFIID.

The general transcription factor IID (TFIID) is required for initiation of RNA polymerase II-dependent transcription at many eukaryotic promoters. TFIID comprises the TATA-binding protein (TBP) and several conserved TBP-associated factors (TAFs). Recognition of the core promoter by TFIID assists assembly of the preinitiation complex. Using cryo-electron microscopy in combination with methods for ab initio single-particle reconstruction and heterogeneity analysis, we have produced density maps of two conformational states of Schizosaccharomyces pombe TFIID, containing and lacking TBP. We report that TBP-binding is coupled to a massive histone-fold domain rearrangement. Moreover, docking of the TBP-TAF1(N-terminus) atomic structure to the TFIID map and reconstruction of a TAF-promoter DNA complex helps to account for TAF-dependent regulation of promoter-TBP and promoter-TAF interactions.

The classical srb4-138 mutant allele causes dissociation of yeast Mediator.

The Mediator complex is an essential co-activator for RNA polymerase II-dependent transcription in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The S. cerevisiae core Mediator complex consists of three larger domains that are termed head, middle, and tail. The Med17 subunit is located within the head domain and is essential for cell viability. A temperature-sensitive allele of the MED17 gene known as srb4-138 causes all RNA polymerase II-dependent transcription to cease at the non-permissive temperature. The phenotype of srb4-138 allele has served as the main in vivo proof of the importance of Mediator, but the molecular basis for the effect of this mutant has not been determined. We here characterize Mediator from cells carrying the srb4-138 allele and find that the Mediator complex consistently breaks apart at the head/middle domain boundary even at lower temperatures. We find that both the head and middle domains are able to associate with the RNA polymerase independently of each other. Interestingly, both sub-complexes are able to associate with an active promoter at the permissive temperature but at the non-permissive temperature the head domain is lost from the promoter.

The cyclin-dependent kinase 8 module sterically blocks Mediator interactions with RNA polymerase II.

CDK8 (cyclin-dependent kinase 8), along with CycC, Med12, and Med13, form a repressive module (the Cdk8 module) that prevents RNA polymerase II (pol II) interactions with Mediator. Here, we report that the ability of the Cdk8 module to prevent pol II interactions is independent of the Cdk8-dependent kinase activity. We use electron microscopy and single-particle reconstruction to demonstrate that the Cdk8 module forms a distinct structural entity that binds to the head and middle region of Mediator, thereby sterically blocking interactions with pol II.

TRAP230/ARC240 and TRAP240/ARC250 Mediator subunits are functionally conserved through evolution.

In Saccharomyces cerevisiae Mediator, a subgroup of proteins (Srb8, Srb9, Srb10, and Srb11) form a module, which is involved in negative regulation of transcription. Homologues of Srb10 and Srb11 are found in some mammalian Mediator preparations, whereas no clear homologues have been reported for Srb8 and Srb9. Here, we identify a TRAP240/ARC250 homologue in Schizosaccharomyces pombe and demonstrate that this protein, spTrap240, is stably associated with a larger form of Mediator, which also contains conserved homologues of Srb8, Srb10, and Srb11. We find that spTrap240 and Sch. pombe Srb8 (spSrb8) regulate the same distinct subset of genes and have indistinguishable phenotypic characteristics. Importantly, Mediator containing the spSrb8/spTrap240/spSrb10/spSrb11 subunits is isolated only in free form, devoid of RNA polymerase II. In contrast, Mediator lacking this module associates with the polymerase. Our findings provide experimental evidence for recent suggestions that TRAP230/ARC240 and TRAP240/ARC250 may indeed be the Srb8 and Srb9 homologues of mammalian Mediator. Apparently Srb8/TRAP230/ARC240, Srb9/TRAP240/ARC250, Srb10, and Srb11 constitute a conserved Mediator submodule, which is involved in negative regulation of transcription in all eukaryotes.

Mediator influences Schizosaccharomyces pombe RNA polymerase II-dependent transcription in vitro.

The fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe has proved an important model system for cross-species comparative studies of many fundamental processes in the eukaryotic cell, such as cell cycle control and DNA replication. The RNA polymerase II transcription machinery is, however, still relatively poorly understood in S. pombe, partially due to the absence of a reconstituted in vitro transcription system. We have now purified S. pombe RNA polymerase II and its general initiation factors TFIIB, TFIIF, TFIIE, and TFIIH to near homogeneity. These factors enable RNA polymerase II to initiate transcription from the S. pombe alcohol dehydrogenase promoter (adh1p) when combined with Saccharomyces cerevisiae TATA-binding protein. We use our reconstituted system to examine effects of Mediator on basal transcription in vitro. S. pombe Mediator exists in two distinct forms, a free form, which contains the spSrb8, spTrap240, spSrb10, and spSrb11 subunits, and a smaller form, which lacks these four subunits and associates with RNA polymerase II to form a holoenzyme. We find that spSrb8/spTrap240/spSrb10/spSrb11 containing Mediator repress basal transcription, whereas Mediator lacking these subunits has a stimulatory effect on transcription. Our findings thus demonstrate that the spSrb8/spTrap240/spSrb10/spSrb11 subcomplex governs the ability of Mediator to stimulate or repress basal transcription in vitro.