Covid-19 Vaccine Effectiveness in New York State.

BACKGROUND: Population-based data from the United States on the effectiveness of the three coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) vaccines currently authorized by the Food and Drug Administration are limited. Whether declines in effectiveness are due to waning immunity, the B.1.617.2 (delta) variant of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), or other causes is unknown. METHODS: We used data for 8,690,825 adults in New York State to assess the effectiveness of the BNT162b2, mRNA-1273, and Ad26.COV2.S vaccines against laboratory-confirmed Covid-19 and hospitalization with Covid-19 (i.e., Covid-19 diagnosed at or after admission). We compared cohorts defined according to vaccine product received, age, and month of full vaccination with age-specific unvaccinated cohorts by linking statewide testing, hospital, and vaccine registry databases. We assessed vaccine effectiveness against Covid-19 from May 1 through September 3, 2021, and against hospitalization with Covid-19 from May 1 through August 31, 2021. RESULTS: There were 150,865 cases of Covid-19 and 14,477 hospitalizations with Covid-19. During the week of May 1, 2021, when the delta variant made up 1.8% of the circulating variants, the median vaccine effectiveness against Covid-19 was 91.3% (range, 84.1 to 97.0) for BNT162b2, 96.9% (range, 93.7 to 98.0) for mRNA-1273, and 86.6% (range, 77.8 to 89.7) for Ad26.COV2.S. Subsequently, effectiveness declined contemporaneously in all cohorts, from a median of 93.4% (range, 77.8 to 98.0) during the week of May 1 to a nadir of 73.5% (range, 13.8 to 90.0) around July 10, when the prevalence of the delta variant was 85.3%. By the week of August 28, when the prevalence of the delta variant was 99.6%, the effectiveness was 74.2% (range, 63.4 to 86.8). Effectiveness against hospitalization with Covid-19 among adults 18 to 64 years of age remained almost exclusively greater than 86%, with no apparent time trend. Effectiveness declined from May through August among persons 65 years of age or older who had received BNT162b2 (from 94.8 to 88.6%) or mRNA-1273 (from 97.1 to 93.7%). The effectiveness of Ad26.COV2.S was lower than that of the other vaccines, with no trend observed over time (range, 80.0 to 90.6%). CONCLUSIONS: The effectiveness of the three vaccines against Covid-19 declined after the delta variant became predominant. The effectiveness against hospitalization remained high, with modest declines limited to BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273 recipients 65 years of age or older.

Effectiveness of JYNNEOS Vaccine Against Diagnosed Mpox Infection - New York, 2022.

In 2022, an international Monkeypox virus outbreak, characterized by transmission primarily through sexual contact among gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (MSM), resulted in 375 monkeypox (mpox) cases in the state of New York outside of New York City (NYC).*,† The JYNNEOS vaccine (Modified Vaccinia Ankara vaccine, Bavarian Nordic), licensed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) against mpox as a 2-dose series, with doses administered 4 weeks apart,§ was deployed in a national vaccination campaign.¶ Before this outbreak, evidence to support vaccine effectiveness (VE) against mpox was based on human immunologic and animal challenge studies (1-3). New York State Department of Health (NYSDOH) conducted a case-control study to estimate JYNNEOS VE against diagnosed mpox in New York residents outside of NYC, using data from systematic surveillance reporting. A case-patient was defined as a man aged ≥18 years who received a diagnosis of mpox during July 24-October 31, 2022. Contemporaneous control patients were men aged ≥18 years with diagnosed rectal gonorrhea or primary syphilis and a history of male-to-male sexual contact, without mpox. Case-patients and control patients were matched to records in state immunization systems. JYNNEOS VE was estimated as 1 - odds ratio (OR) x 100, and JYNNEOS vaccination status (vaccinated versus unvaccinated) at the time of diagnosis was compared, using conditional logistic regression models that adjusted for week of diagnosis, region, patient age, and patient race and ethnicity. Among 252 eligible mpox case-patients and 255 control patients, the adjusted VE of 1 dose (received ≥14 days earlier) or 2 doses combined was 75.7% (95% CI = 48.5%-88.5%); the VE for 1 dose was 68.1% (95% CI = 24.9%-86.5%) and for 2 doses was 88.5% (95% CI = 44.1%-97.6%). These findings support recommended 2-dose JYNNEOS vaccination consistent with CDC and NYSDOH guidance.

COVID-19 Cases and Hospitalizations by COVID-19 Vaccination Status and Previous COVID-19 Diagnosis - California and New York, May-November 2021.

By November 30, 2021, approximately 130,781 COVID-19-associated deaths, one in six of all U.S. deaths from COVID-19, had occurred in California and New York.* COVID-19 vaccination protects against infection with SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19), associated severe illness, and death (1,2); among those who survive, previous SARS-CoV-2 infection also confers protection against severe outcomes in the event of reinfection (3,4). The relative magnitude and duration of infection- and vaccine-derived protection, alone and together, can guide public health planning and epidemic forecasting. To examine the impact of primary COVID-19 vaccination and previous SARS-CoV-2 infection on COVID-19 incidence and hospitalization rates, statewide testing, surveillance, and COVID-19 immunization data from California and New York (which account for 18% of the U.S. population) were analyzed. Four cohorts of adults aged ≥18 years were considered: persons who were 1) unvaccinated with no previous laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 diagnosis, 2) vaccinated (14 days after completion of a primary COVID-19 vaccination series) with no previous COVID-19 diagnosis, 3) unvaccinated with a previous COVID-19 diagnosis, and 4) vaccinated with a previous COVID-19 diagnosis. Age-adjusted hazard rates of incident laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 cases in both states were compared among cohorts, and in California, hospitalizations during May 30-November 20, 2021, were also compared. During the study period, COVID-19 incidence in both states was highest among unvaccinated persons without a previous COVID-19 diagnosis compared with that among the other three groups. During the week beginning May 30, 2021, compared with COVID-19 case rates among unvaccinated persons without a previous COVID-19 diagnosis, COVID-19 case rates were 19.9-fold (California) and 18.4-fold (New York) lower among vaccinated persons without a previous diagnosis; 7.2-fold (California) and 9.9-fold lower (New York) among unvaccinated persons with a previous COVID-19 diagnosis; and 9.6-fold (California) and 8.5-fold lower (New York) among vaccinated persons with a previous COVID-19 diagnosis. During the same period, compared with hospitalization rates among unvaccinated persons without a previous COVID-19 diagnosis, hospitalization rates in California followed a similar pattern. These relationships changed after the SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant became predominant (i.e., accounted for >50% of sequenced isolates) in late June and July. By the week beginning October 3, compared with COVID-19 cases rates among unvaccinated persons without a previous COVID-19 diagnosis, case rates among vaccinated persons without a previous COVID-19 diagnosis were 6.2-fold (California) and 4.5-fold (New York) lower; rates were substantially lower among both groups with previous COVID-19 diagnoses, including 29.0-fold (California) and 14.7-fold lower (New York) among unvaccinated persons with a previous diagnosis, and 32.5-fold (California) and 19.8-fold lower (New York) among vaccinated persons with a previous diagnosis of COVID-19. During the same period, compared with hospitalization rates among unvaccinated persons without a previous COVID-19 diagnosis, hospitalization rates in California followed a similar pattern. These results demonstrate that vaccination protects against COVID-19 and related hospitalization, and that surviving a previous infection protects against a reinfection and related hospitalization. Importantly, infection-derived protection was higher after the Delta variant became predominant, a time when vaccine-induced immunity for many persons declined because of immune evasion and immunologic waning (2,5,6). Similar cohort data accounting for booster doses needs to be assessed, as new variants, including Omicron, circulate. Although the epidemiology of COVID-19 might change with the emergence of new variants, vaccination remains the safest strategy to prevent SARS-CoV-2 infections and associated complications; all eligible persons should be up to date with COVID-19 vaccination. Additional recommendations for vaccine doses might be warranted in the future as the virus and immunity levels change.

Obesity and Diabetes in the Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska: From Community Engagement to Action, 2014-2019.

The Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska implemented interventions to promote the health of their people, focusing on community-selected and culturally adapted policies, systems, and environmental (PSE) improvements to reduce the prevalence of obesity and type 2 diabetes. The interventions were implemented as part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC's) 2014-2019 Good Health and Wellness in Indian Country program. The Winnebago Tribe used CDC's CHANGE community health assessment tool to prioritize and direct their interventions. They integrated findings from a community health assessment tool with observations from tribal working groups and implemented 6 new evidence-based PSE interventions. Their successful approaches - selected by the Winnebago community, culturally relevant, and driven by scientific assessment -demonstrate the value of flexibility in CDC grant programs.

A Holistic Approach to Chronic Disease Prevention: Good Health and Wellness in Indian Country.

The National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention funds the agency's largest investment in Indian Country, Good Health and Wellness in Indian Country. This 5-year program, launched in 2014, supports American Indian and Alaska Native communities and tribal organizations to address chronic diseases and risk factors simultaneously and in coordination. This article describes the development, funding, and implementation of the program. Dialogue with tribal members and leaders helped shape the program, and unlike previous programs that funded a small number of tribes to work on specific diseases, this program funds multiple tribal entities to reach widely into Indian Country. Implementation included culturally developed and adapted practices and opportunities for peer sharing and problem solving. This program identified approaches useful for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, other federal agencies, or other organizations working with American Indians and Alaska Natives.

State Public Health Actions to Prevent and Control Diabetes, Heart Disease, Obesity and Associated Risk Factors, and Promote School Health.

The National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention funds a program to boost progress in reducing the prevalence and incidence of multiple chronic diseases and their associated risk factors. This article describes the program, State Public Health Actions to Prevent and Control Diabetes, Heart Disease, Obesity and Associated Risk Factors, and Promote School Health, and the program's action model, design, and administration and management structure. This program is based on 4 domains of public health action: 1) epidemiology and surveillance, 2) environmental approaches, 3) health care system interventions, and 4) community programs linked to clinical services. The 4 domains of public health action leverage data to inform action, support healthy choices and behaviors, strengthen delivery of clinical preventive services, and help Americans better manage their health.

Understanding the African American "Smoker".

UNLABELLED: This commentary draws on the articles contained in this special African American youth and adult tobacco use supplement to better understand the apparent paradox of low youth smoking rates and high adult smoking rates. Implications for tobacco use prevention and control are discussed. IMPLICATIONS: This commentary introduces the reader to the topics and questions addressed in the supplement and urges an invigorated public health response to address tobacco-caused disease and death in African Americans.

Prevention of chronic disease in the 21st century: elimination of the leading preventable causes of premature death and disability in the USA.

With non-communicable conditions accounting for nearly two-thirds of deaths worldwide, the emergence of chronic diseases as the predominant challenge to global health is undisputed. In the USA, chronic diseases are the main causes of poor health, disability, and death, and account for most of health-care expenditures. The chronic disease burden in the USA largely results from a short list of risk factors--including tobacco use, poor diet and physical inactivity (both strongly associated with obesity), excessive alcohol consumption, uncontrolled high blood pressure, and hyperlipidaemia--that can be effectively addressed for individuals and populations. Increases in the burden of chronic diseases are attributable to incidence and prevalence of leading chronic conditions and risk factors (which occur individually and in combination), and population demographics, including ageing and health disparities. To effectively and equitably address the chronic disease burden, public health and health-care systems need to deploy integrated approaches that bundle strategies and interventions, address many risk factors and conditions simultaneously, create population-wide changes, help the population subgroups most affected, and rely on implementation by many sectors, including public-private partnerships and involvement from all stakeholders. To help to meet the chronic disease burden, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) uses four cross-cutting strategies: (1) epidemiology and surveillance to monitor trends and inform programmes; (2) environmental approaches that promote health and support healthy behaviours; (3) health system interventions to improve the effective use of clinical and other preventive services; and (4) community resources linked to clinical services that sustain improved management of chronic conditions. Establishment of community conditions to support healthy behaviours and promote effective management of chronic conditions will deliver healthier students to schools, healthier workers to employers and businesses, and a healthier population to the health-care system. Collectively, these four strategies will prevent the occurrence of chronic diseases, foster early detection and slow disease progression in people with chronic conditions, reduce complications, support an improved quality of life, and reduce demand on the health-care system. Of crucial importance, with strengthened collaboration between the public health and health-care sectors, the health-care system better uses prevention and early detection services, and population health is improved and sustained by solidifying collaborations between communities and health-care providers. This collaborative approach will improve health equity by building communities that promote health rather than disease, have more accessible and direct care, and focus the health-care system on improving population health.

Home testing for SARS-CoV-2 and impact on surveillance in New York State.

PURPOSE: To determine the distribution of diagnosed SARS-CoV-2 infections by testing modality (at-home rapid antigen [home tests] versus laboratory-based tests in clinical settings [clinical tests]), assess factors associated with clinical testing, and estimate the true total number of diagnosed infections in New York State (NYS). METHODS: We conducted an online survey among NYS residents and analyzed data from 1012 adults and 246 children with diagnosed infection July 13-December 7, 2022. Weighted descriptive and logistic regression model analyses were conducted. Weighted percentages and prevalence ratios by testing modality were generated. The percent of infections diagnosed by clinical tests via survey data were synthesized with daily lab-reported results to estimate the total number of diagnosed SARS-CoV-2 infections in NYS July 1-December 31, 2022. RESULTS: Over 70% of SARS-CoV-2 infections in NYS during the study period were diagnosed exclusively with home tests. Diagnosis with a clinical test was associated with age, race/ethnicity, and region among adults, and sex, age, and education among children. We estimate 4.1 million NYS residents had diagnosed SARS-CoV-2 infection July 1-December 31, 2022, compared to 1.1 million infections reported over the same period. CONCLUSIONS: Most SARS-CoV-2 infections in NYS were diagnosed exclusively with home tests. Surveillance metrics using laboratory-based reporting data underestimate diagnosed infections.

Monitoring the tobacco use epidemic III: The host: data sources and methodological challenges.

OBJECTIVE: This Host paper (III of V) reviews key surveillance and evaluation systems that monitor the characteristics, attitudes and behaviors of tobacco users that are crucial for tobacco control efforts. METHODS: We summarize and expand on the recommendations from the Host Working Group of the National Tobacco Monitoring, Research and Evaluation Workshop. We also discuss research challenges and make additional recommendations for improving tobacco control surveillance and evaluation. RESULTS: We reviewed 10 major US surveys that collect data on tobacco use. A great deal of data is collected but gaps exist. Data collection on cigars, smokeless tobacco, brand, menthols, and PREPs is sparse and infrequent. Also, a number of factors, including, but not limited to, changes in US population composition, declines in survey response rates, and increases in cell phone use present research challenges that may impact the ongoing utility of these systems. CONCLUSIONS: Although the field of tobacco control research is an advanced area of public health, improvements in data systems are necessary to accurately evaluate progress and continue tobacco control gains. A coordinated surveillance and evaluation network would increase efficiency and improve the overall utility, quality and timeliness of the current data systems.

Declines in hospital admissions for acute myocardial infarction in New York state after implementation of a comprehensive smoking ban.

OBJECTIVES: Reductions in exposure to environmental tobacco smoke have been shown to attenuate the risk of cardiovascular disease. We examined whether the 2003 implementation of a comprehensive smoking ban in New York State was associated with reduced hospital admissions for acute myocardial infarction and stroke, beyond the effect of moderate, local and statewide smoking restrictions, and independent of secular trends. METHODS: We analyzed trends in county-level, age-adjusted, monthly hospital admission rates for acute myocardial infarction and stroke from 1995 to 2004 to identify any association between admission rates and implementation of the smoking ban. We used regression models to adjust for the effects of pre-existing smoking restrictions, seasonal trends in admissions, differences across counties, and secular trends. RESULTS: In 2004, there were 3813 fewer hospital admissions for acute myocardial infarction than would have been expected in the absence of the comprehensive smoking ban. Direct health care cost savings of $56 million were realized in 2004. There was no reduction in the number of admissions for stroke. CONCLUSIONS: Hospital admission rates for acute myocardial infarction were reduced by 8% as a result of a comprehensive smoking ban in New York State after we controlled for other relevant factors. Comprehensive smoking bans constitute a simple, effective intervention to substantially improve the public's health.

Effectiveness and cost effectiveness of television, radio and print advertisements in promoting the New York smokers' quitline.

OBJECTIVES: This study assessed the relative effectiveness and cost effectiveness of television, radio and print advertisements to generate calls to the New York smokers' quitline. METHODS: Regression analysis was used to link total county level monthly quitline calls to television, radio and print advertising expenditures. Based on regression results, standardised measures of the relative effectiveness and cost effectiveness of expenditures were computed. RESULTS: There was a positive and statistically significant relation between call volume and expenditures for television (p<0.01) and radio (p<0.001) advertisements and a marginally significant effect for expenditures on newspaper advertisements (p<0.065). The largest effect was for television advertising. However, because of differences in advertising costs, for every $1000 increase in television, radio and newspaper expenditures, call volume increased by 0.1%, 5.7% and 2.8%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Television, radio and print media all effectively increased calls to the New York smokers' quitline. Although increases in expenditures for television were the most effective, their relatively high costs suggest they are not currently the most cost effective means to promote a quitline. This implies that a more efficient mix of media would place greater emphasis on radio than television. However, because the current study does not adequately assess the extent to which radio expenditures would sustain their effectiveness with substantial expenditure increases, it is not feasible to determine a more optimal mix of expenditures.

Reducing Potentially Excess Deaths from the Five Leading Causes of Death in the Rural United States

In 2014, the all-cause age-adjusted death rate in the United States reached a historic low of 724.6 per 100,000 population (1). However, mortality in rural (nonmetropolitan) areas of the United States has decreased at a much slower pace, resulting in a widening gap between rural mortality rates (830.5) and urban mortality rates (704.3) (1). During 1999­2014, annual age-adjusted death rates for the five leading causes of death in the United States (heart disease, cancer, unintentional injury, chronic lower respiratory disease (CLRD), and stroke) were higher in rural areas than in urban (metropolitan) areas (Figure 1). In most public health regions (Figure 2), the proportion of deaths among persons aged <80 years (U.S. average life expectancy) (2) from the five leading causes that were potentially excess deaths was higher in rural areas compared with urban areas (Figure 3). Several factors probably influence the rural-urban gap in potentially excess deaths from the five leading causes, many of which are associated with sociodemographic differences between rural and urban areas. Residents of rural areas in the United States tend to be older, poorer, and sicker than their urban counterparts (3). A higher proportion of the rural U.S. population reports limited physical activity because of chronic conditions than urban populations (4). Moreover, social circumstances and behaviors have an impact on mortality and potentially contribute to approximately half of the determining causes of potentially excess deaths (5).

Which population-based interventions would motivate smokers to think seriously about stopping smoking?

OBJECTIVE: To describe what smokers say about the impact of different population-based interventions to motivate them to think seriously about stopping smoking. METHODS: A random-digit dialed cross-sectional telephone survey of adult current cigarette smokers was conducted in Erie and Niagara counties, New York, in October through November 2002. A total of 815 smokers were asked which of eight interventions would motivate them to think seriously about stopping smoking in the next 6 months. RESULTS: The offer of free nicotine patches/gum (53%) and cash incentives (49%) were the most frequently mentioned interventions that smokers said would get them to think seriously about stopping smoking. The degree of motivation to stop smoking was the most consistent and strongest predictor of how respondents answered the question about the influence of the various intervention options. CONCLUSION: Communities need to offer a wide array of interventions that are likely to appeal to different subgroups of smokers in order to have a population-wide impact on smoking behavior.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus among Florida children and adolescents, 1994 through 1998.

OBJECTIVES: This study was undertaken to examine the trends in the diagnosis of Type 2 diabetes mellitus among children and adolescents with new-onset diabetes seen from 1994 through 1998 at the three university-based diabetes centers in Florida. METHODS: Data were abstracted from medical records and patients were categorized as having Type 1 or Type 2 diabetes. RESULTS: There were 569 patients classified with Type 1 diabetes and 92 with Type 2 diabetes. The proportion of patients diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes increased over the five years from 9.4% in 1994 to 20.0% in 1998 (chi-square test for trend = 8.2; p=0.004). There was not an associated net increase in the total number of new diabetes patients referred over time (chi-square test for trend = 0.6, p=0.4). Those with Type 2 diabetes were more likely to have a body mass index in the 85th-94th percentile [odds ratio (OR) = 8.5; 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.5, 28.8], have a body mass index >or=95th percentile (OR = 6.8; 95% CI 2.6, 17.7), Hispanic ethnicity (OR = 6.2; 95% CI 2.2, 17.9), black race (OR = 2.8; 95% CI 1.3, 6.2), female gender (OR = 2.2; 95% CI 1.2, 4.3), and older age (OR = 1.4 for each one-year increment in age; 95% CI 1.3, 1.6), compared with those having Type 1 diabetes. CONCLUSIONS: From 1994 through 1998, there was a significant overall increase in the percentage of children referred with new-onset diabetes who were considered to have Type 2 diabetes. Factors associated with the diagnosis of Type 2 diabetes relative to Type 1 diabetes include body mass index >/=85th percentile, Hispanic ethnicity, black race, female gender, and older age.