Simple Air-Stable [3]Radialene Anion Radicals as Environmentally Switchable Catholytes in Water.

The hexacyano[3]radialene radical anion (1) is an attractive catholyte material for use in redox flow battery (RFB) applications. The substitution of cyano groups with ester moieties enhances solubility while maintaining redox reversibility and favorable redox potentials. Here we show that these ester-functionalized, hexasubstituted [3]radialene radical anions dimerize reversibly in water. The dimerization mode is dependent on the substitution pattern and can be switched in solution. Stimuli-responsive behavior is achieved by exploiting an unprecedented tristate switching mechanism, wherein the radical can be toggled between the free radical, a π-dimer, and a σ-dimer-each with dramatically different optical, magnetic, and redox properties-by changing the solvent environment, temperature, or salinity. The symmetric, triester-tricyano[3]radialene (3) forms a solvent-responsive, σ-dimer in water that converts to the radical anion with the addition of organic solvents or to a π-dimer in brine solutions. Diester-tetracyano[3]radialene (2) exists primarily as a π-dimer in aqueous solutions and a radical anion in organic solvents. The dimerization behavior of both 2 and 3 is temperature dependent in methanol solutions. Dimerization equilibrium has a direct impact on catholyte stability during galvanostatic charge-discharge cycling in static H-cells. Specifically, conditions that favor the free radical anion or π-dimer exhibit significantly enhanced cycling profiles.

Stepwise Assembly of an Electroactive Framework from a Co6 S8 Superatomic Metalloligand and Cuprous Iodide Building Units.

Invited for the cover of this issue is Christopher Bejger and co-workers at UNC Charlotte, Columbia University, and Donghua University. The image depicts a pair of star clusters in the constellation Perseus as the structure of two metal clusters in the reported framework. Read the full text of the article at 10.1002/chem.20201215.

Stepwise Assembly of an Electroactive Framework from a Co6 S8 Superatomic Metalloligand and Cuprous Iodide Building Units.

The design of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) that incorporate more than one metal cluster constituent is a challenging task. Conventional one-pot reaction protocols require judicious selection of ligand and metal ion precursors, yet remain unpredictable. Stable, preformed nanoclusters, with ligand shells that can undergo additional coordination-driven reactions, provide a platform for assembling multi-cluster solids with precision. Herein, a discrete Co6 S8 (PTA)6 (PTA=1,3,5-triaza-7-phosphaadamantane) superatomic-metalloligand is assembled into a three-dimensional (3D) coordination polymer comprising Cu4 I4 secondary building units (SBUs). The resulting heterobimetallic framework (1) contains two distinct cluster constituents and bifunctional PTA linkers. Solid-state diffuse reflectance studies reveal that 1 is an optical semiconductor with a band-gap of 1.59 eV. Framework-modified electrodes exhibit reversible redox behavior in the solid state arising from the Co6 S8 superatoms, which remain intact during framework synthesis.

Ball and Socket Assembly of Binary Superatomic Solids Containing Trinuclear Nickel Cluster Cations and Fulleride Anions.

The superlattice structures of hierarchical cluster solids are dictated by short-range interactions between constituent building blocks. Here we show that shape complementary sites, as well as halogen and chalcogen bonding between exposed capping ligands and fullerides, govern the packing arrangement of the resulting binary solids. Four new superatomic solids, [Ni3(µ3-I)2(µ2-dppm)3+](C60•-) (1·C60), [Ni3(µ3-I)2(µ2-dppm)3+](C70-)2 (1·C70), [Ni3(µ3-Te)2(µ2-dppm)3+](C60•-) (2·C60), and [Ni3(µ3-Te)2(µ2-dppm)3](C70-)2 (2·C70), (dppm = Ph2PCH2PPh2) were prepared and crystallized from solution. All four compounds were characterized by single crystal X-ray diffraction, IR spectroscopy, and SQUID magnetometry. Charge transfer between the molecular clusters is confirmed via optical spectroscopy and structural data. Compounds 1·C60 and 2·C60 are paramagnetic and 100 times more conductive than the constituent cluster precursors. The obtained solids exhibit close contacts, indicative of halogen/chalcogen bonds, between the fulleride anions and the nickel cluster capping ligands (I/Te) in the solid-state.

Ferromagnetic ordering in superatomic solids.

In order to realize significant benefits from the assembly of solid-state materials from molecular cluster superatomic building blocks, several criteria must be met. Reproducible syntheses must reliably produce macroscopic amounts of pure material; the cluster-assembled solids must show properties that are more than simply averages of those of the constituent subunits; and rational changes to the chemical structures of the subunits must result in predictable changes in the collective properties of the solid. In this report we show that we can meet these requirements. Using a combination of magnetometry and muon spin relaxation measurements, we demonstrate that crystallographically defined superatomic solids assembled from molecular nickel telluride clusters and fullerenes undergo a ferromagnetic phase transition at low temperatures. Moreover, we show that when we modify the constituent superatoms, the cooperative magnetic properties change in predictable ways.

Synthesis and disassembly of an organometallic polymer comprising redox-active Co4S4 clusters and Janus biscarbene linkers.

Here, we show for the first time that main-chain organometallic polymers (MCOPs) can be prepared from Janus N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) linkers and polynuclear cluster nodes. The crosslinked framework Co4S4-MCOP is synthesized via ligand displacement reactions and undergoes reversible electron transfer in the solid state. Discrete molecular cluster species can be excised from the framework by digesting the solid in solutions of excess monocarbene. Finally, we demonstrate a synthetic route to monodisperse framework particles via coordination modulation.

Positive homotropic allosteric receptors for neutral guests: annulated tetrathiafulvalene-calix[4]pyrroles as colorimetric chemosensors for nitroaromatic explosives.

The study of positive homotropic allosterism in supramolecular receptors is important for elucidating design strategies that can lead to increased sensitivity in various molecular recognition applications. In this work, the cooperative relationship between tetrathiafulvalene (TTF)-calix[4]pyrroles and several nitroaromatic guests is examined. The design and synthesis of new annulated TTF-calix[4]pyrrole receptors with the goal of rigidifying the system to accommodate better nitroaromatic guests is outlined. These new derivatives, which display significant improvement in terms of binding constants, also display a positive homotropic allosteric relationship, as borne out from the sigmoidal nature of the binding isotherms and analysis by using the Hill equation, Adair equation, and Scatchard plots. The host-guest complexes themselves have been characterized by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analyses and studied by means of UV-spectroscopic titrations. Investigations into the electronic nature of the receptors were made by using cyclic voltammetry; this revealed that the binding efficiency was not strictly related to the redox potential of the receptor. On the other hand, this work serves to illustrate how cooperative effects may be used to enhance the recognition ability of TTF-calix[4]pyrrole receptors. It has led to new allosteric systems that function as rudimentary colorimetric chemosensors for common nitroaromatic-based explosives, and which are effective even in the presence of potentially interfering anions.

Accessing new microporous polyspirobifluorenes via a C/Si switch.

Microporous spirosilabifluorene networks were synthesized via Yamamoto coupling of tetrabromospirosilabifluorene precursors. They exhibit bright fluorescence that is quenched in the presence of nitroaromatics. The C/Si switch has subtle effects on the optical properties of the spirobifluorene network and provides a convenient route to 3,3',6,6'-coupled and other polybifluorenes.

Desymmetrized hexasubstituted [3]radialene anions as aqueous organic catholytes for redox flow batteries.

Negatively substituted trimethylenecyclopropane dianions, a subclass of hexasubstituted [3]radialenes, are candidates for use as active species in redox flow batteries (RFBs) due to their stability in water, reversible electrochemistry, and tailorable synthesis. Hexacyano[3]radialene disodium is investigated as a pH 7 aqueous organic catholyte. The dianion and radical anion are stable in air and aqueous solutions at neutral pH. Systematic introduction of asymmetry via step-wise synthesis leads to enhanced solubility and higher capacity retention during galvanostatic cycling. An aqueous flow cell comprising a diester-tetracyano[3]radialene catholyte, sulfonated-methyl viologen as the anolyte, and a cation exchange membrane provides an operating Vcell = 0.9 V, 99.609% coulombic efficiency, and minimum capacity fade over 50 cycles.

Two-Dimensional Nanosheets from Redox-Active Superatoms.

We describe a new approach to synthesize two-dimensional (2D) nanosheets from the bottom-up. We functionalize redox-active superatoms with groups that can direct their assembly into multidimensional solids. We synthesized Co6Se8[PEt2(4-C6H4COOH)]6 and found that it forms a crystalline assembly. The solid-state structure is a three-dimensional (3D) network in which the carboxylic acids form intercluster hydrogen bonds. We modify the self-assembly by replacing the reversible hydrogen bonds that hold the superatoms together with zinc carboxylate bonds via the solvothermal reaction of Co6Se8[PEt2(4-C6H4COOH)]6 with Zn(NO3)2. We obtain two types of crystalline materials using this approach: one is a 3D solid and the other consists of stacked layers of 2D sheets. The dimensionality is controlled by subtle changes in reaction conditions. These 2D sheets can be chemically exfoliated, and the exfoliated, ultrathin 2D layers are soluble. After they are deposited on a substrate, they can be imaged. We cast them onto an electrode surface and show that they retain the redox activity of the superatom building blocks due to the porosity in the sheets.

Synthesis and characterization of a tetrathiafulvalene-salphen actinide complex.

A new tetrathiafulvalene-salphen uranyl complex has been prepared. The system was designed to study the electronic coupling between actinides and a redox active ligand framework. Theoretical and experimental methods--including DFT calculations, single crystal X-ray analysis, cyclic voltammetry, NMR and IR spectroscopies--were used to characterize this new uranyl complex.

Palladium induced macrocyclic preorganization for stabilization of a tetrathiafulvalene mixed-valence dimer.

Ditopic metalation of a flexible "Pacman"-like tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) modified Schiff-base-calixpyrrole results in the stabilization upon oxidation of an otherwise difficult-to-access mixed-valence TTF radical dimer. EPR and optical spectroscopies were used to characterize the mixed-valence species.

Tetrathiafulvalene diindolylquinoxaline: a dual signaling anion receptor with phosphate selectivity.

Incorporation of tetrathiafulvalene into the backbone of a known neutral phosphate receptor, diindolylquinoxaline, yields a dual optical-electrochemical chemosensor for dihydrogen phosphate that functions in dichloromethane. This system shows selectivity for dihydrogen phosphate over other small anions and can be used to detect the presence of this analyte via fluorescence quenching or cyclic voltammetry.